All about bird migration. Bird migration - main reasons and interesting facts Migration pattern of one migratory bird

Main directions of migration flows and ecological channels of passage

1 - Mississippian, 2 - Central American, 3 - Pacific, 4 - Atlantic, 5 - Eastern European, 6 - East Asian, 7 - Western European, 8 - Indo-Asian

There are places on the globe over which huge masses of migratory birds move over certain periods every year. The increased concentration of birds there, as a rule, depends on the terrain and in most cases has deep historical roots. In autumn, more birds accumulate on these routes than in spring. This partly depends on the fact that during the period of migration to the south the number of migratory birds is greatest (after all, autumn migration occurs just after breeding and reaching the annual population maximum), partly on the fact that in the fall the migration takes place at a calmer pace than in the spring. In spring, migration is faster - birds rush to their nesting sites.

Most bird species fly non-stop from South America to North over the Gulf of Mexico, but there are also many species that prefer to follow land through the Isthmus of Panama (vultures and birds of prey). The Isthmus of Panama is a leading migration route for many species of land and water birds. Its contours resemble the Latin letter S on the map, stretched from west to east.

In autumn to Africa A large stream of passerine birds rushes in a broad front over mainland Europe, but before crossing the wide Mediterranean Sea, the birds concentrate in certain food-rich areas along its northern coast. However, in Africa, where the local avifauna is replenished by millions of migratory birds from Europe and Asia, competition for food and shelter is likely to become intense.

The bulk of long-distance migrants fly in a broad front across the vast Sahara Desert, stretching from north to south for 1,600 km, often far from the Nile Valley, where food resources are available and shelter can be found. However, many species of migratory birds still fly over this valley. Savannas, lake and river banks, equatorial lowland and mountain forests, mountain ranges and other landscapes attract many species of migratory birds that remain in this area for the winter. Huge masses waterfowl and waders gravitate to the lakes with shallow shores that abound in this region. There are other areas in Tropical and Subtropical Africa where Palearctic migrants are concentrated. First of all, these are open places with an abundance of water, where there are especially many waterfowl.

Migrations within Europe

The climatic features of Europe, with its mild winters in areas adjacent to the Atlantic coast and in the Mediterranean region, contribute to the fact that most of the short-term migrants fly in a southwestern direction in the fall, and in the northeast in the spring. This refers primarily to bird flights from Northern and partly Central Europe, although many short-distance migrants from the latter region, including Denmark, fly directly west to the British Isles in the autumn.

The British Isles, France and the Iberian Peninsula contain numerous wintering grounds for bird species migrating within Europe, and in addition for many Asian species. Huge numbers of migratory birds gather in the western and southwestern regions of Europe in winter, but not all of them arrive from the northeast or east

Irregularity in the timing and routes of flights in different years is also associated with a tendency that has not yet been clarified for many species to switch to a sedentary lifestyle. This is a long-term process, dependent on climate change over a long period.

Migrations within Eurasia

The scale of flights is large. Perhaps these birds spend the winter not only in the southern regions of Asia, but also on the island of New Guinea, Australia, and New Zealand.

Important wintering areas for Palearctic birds in Asia are located along the southern shores of the Caspian Sea, in Japan and the tropical regions of the mainland,

Since most of Palearctic Asia is dominated by a continental climate with harsh winters, short-distance migrants are naturally less common here than in Europe. Many species that are short-range migrants in Europe become long-distance migrants in Asia. These include, for example, the grosbeak.

In Asia, the Himalayas form a barrier that plays much the same role for migratory birds as the Mediterranean Sea and the Sahara in Europe and Africa. Some species fly west of the Himalayas, others fly east of them, but a large number of species probably fly over these mountains. The flight paths of many species coming from the north pass along the western and eastern coasts of the Hindustan Peninsula. In both cases, their final destination is Sri Lanka. In addition, birds from East Asia,

Bird migrations over the oceans

Albatrosses, petrels, storm petrels and other oceanic migratory birds, with the exception of nesting periods, live in open water spaces, where they make very significant migrations. Some of these species are essentially nomadic, but in many cases there are genuine migrations, clearly expressed in time and space.

Many species fly vast distances over the ocean, which is not at all associated with daily movements in search of food. Many of these long-distance migratory seabirds are thought to doze while flying or soaring over the ocean. The record-breaking distance traveled by an oceanic migrant is 19.2 thousand km; This is the route of the common petrel from Wales to Australia.

A large number of oceanic migratory birds breed in Antarctica or on the islands of the southern hemisphere, from where they in many cases migrate north, crossing the equator and reaching the northern seas. Therefore, these are true transoceanic migrations. There are also species of seabirds that breed in the northern hemisphere and migrate south of the equator. Significant factors influencing the migrations of the birds in question are food resources and prevailing winds.

Deviations in migrations between continents

Storms and constantly blowing winds during bird migration can cause significant deviations from their original and normal course. Sometimes birds completely lose their way and reach a continent that is not the one that was the goal of their flight. This is especially true for birds that fly over large areas of the sea (off-course when crossing the Atlantic Ocean on the way from North America to Europe).

Golden Avoceted Woodpecker, Black Starling, Carolina Crake

American coot: reproductive strategy combining normal nesting with laying eggs in the nests of another species (1/4 females) is caused by specific conditions (large number of available nests of host birds, lack of nesting areas)

Lesson topic: Seasonal phenomena in the life of birds.

Objective of the lesson: to form knowledge about the adaptation of birds to seasonal natural phenomena.

Lesson objectives:

Educational:

◦ continue to formulate the concept of birds and their adaptability

to the habitat;

◦ consider the reasons for bird migrations;

◦ establish methods for orienting birds during flight;

◦ clarify methods for studying flights.

Educational:

◦ development of students' cognitive interest;

◦ development of intellectual abilities;

◦ development of subject and general scientific skills;

◦ development of self-education skills.

Educational:

◦ formation of communicative qualities, communication culture;

◦ fostering respect for nature and responsibility for

everything is alive.

Teaching methods : information-receptive, reproductive, practical.

Lesson type: lesson on learning new material

PROGRESS of the lesson

I.Organization educational activities students in class.

Communicate the topic, purpose and objectives of the lesson. Stimulating motivation for educational activities during training.

II. Testing knowledge and skills.

Independent work of students.

TASK 1. “yes” or “no”

The reproductive organs in birds are paired ovaries in females and testes in males. (NO, females have one ovary).

Birds have a high metabolic rate (YES, that's true).

The skin of birds is devoid of glands (YES, that's right, there is one gland - the coccygeal gland)

The formation of an egg in birds occurs in the ovaries (NO, during the movement of the egg along the oviduct to the cloaca)

The egg is covered with a calcareous shell, permeated with pores through which gas exchange occurs between the embryo and external environment. (YES).

The excretory organs of birds are the kidneys and bladder with ureters. (NO, birds do not have a bladder).

TASK 2. Complete the sentence:

A bird's egg contains....(the supply of nutrients and water necessary for the embryo to develop).

For successful development embryo are needed.....(certain environmental humidity and a fairly high temperature - 37ْ S - 38ْ WITH)

Birds are called brood birds.... (the chicks of which, immediately after birth, are covered with thick down, can see, can get food on their own, imitating the actions of their parents)

Birds are called nesters..... (the chicks of which are born naked, their eyes and ear openings are closed for some time, are not able to maintain a constant body temperature, cannot move and need to be fed)

Birds show care for their offspring in the following forms:... (protecting chicks from heat and bad weather, cleaning nests from droppings, protecting them from enemies)

In the egg, the suspended yolk is mobile and is located so.... (that the germinal disk is always at the top - closer to the warm body of the brooding bird)

III. Updating basic knowledge and motivating learning activities.

Discussion of the question: what do you think may be responsible for the mass migrations of birds?

IV. Learning new material

The presentation of new material is accompanied by a slide show.

Teacher's story. Slide show (slides No. 2,3.)

The life of birds is rhythmic and is associated with changes in their metabolism, behavior, population organization, etc. Biological rhythm is determined by seasonal changes in conditions and the nature of hereditary adaptations of birds to the environment. A change in the light regime in our country serves as a signal that affects the hormonal system, which determines the annual regime of the bird’s body. In the tropics, this signal is humidity - alternating dry and wet periods. An additional signal may be the amount and types of feed. Thus, the annual life rhythm consists of a number of biological periods, in each of which one or another biological phenomenon predominates: mating, egg laying, molting, migration, etc.

Main periods of the annual cycle.

Preparation for reproduction (enlargement of the gonads, migration of birds to nesting sites, formation of pairs.) Slide show. (slide number 4)

At the nesting site, the male begins to sing. By singing, he invites the female and notifies the males of his species that the place is occupied. Sometimes he fights with rivals, not allowing them to settle in the occupied territory. Here the male and female feed, and later build a nest.

Many birds pair up for only one season. This is how geese and most small passerine species behave. In ducks and pheasants, the male and female stay together only until the eggs are incubated. Birds of prey, storks, herons and other birds live in pairs for many years.

Reproduction and hatching of young (building nests, laying eggs, incubating them, feeding the young). Slide show (slide no. 5,6)

Most birds lay their eggs in a nest, which is often built by the female, sometimes by the male, and often they work together: the male brings the material, and the female lays it down and fastens it. Simple cup-shaped nests are built by large birds, rooks, and pigeons. Finches and goldfinches have hemispherical nests, covered on the outside with moss and lichen. Many forest birds - woodpeckers, nuthatches, tits, flycatchers - lay eggs at the bottom of a hollow. Ducks, cranes, chickens - make nests right on the ground. The cuckoo does not build its own nest, but lays 10-12 eggs one at a time in different nests.

Both parents are often busy with incubation, replacing each other on the nest. Typically, brooding birds turn the eggs in the nest from time to time. This ensures their more uniform heating, which contributes to the rapid development of the embryo. Some birds do not incubate their eggs at all. For example, Australian weed chickens bury their clutches in the ground, where the embryo in the egg develops under the influence of the environment.

During the nesting period - one of the most important periods in the life of birds - they should not be disturbed.

Caring for chicks is very difficult. Parents not only warm and feed them, flying in with food up to 400 times during the day, but also save them from overheating by the sun's rays or from bad weather. By removing droppings from the nest, adult birds maintain the health of the chicks and allow their wings to develop properly.

Molting of birds.

After breeding, birds begin molting - a change in plumage that occurs differently in different birds. different types. Sparrows, tits, starlings, etc. gradually molt. Geese molt rapidly: individuals lose the ability to fly during the molting period (2–5 weeks). When penguins molt, they lose all their feathers at once. They are forced to stand quietly in one place for 14–15 days until new feathers appear. All this time the penguins go without food.

The need for molting, i.e., periodic change of plumage, is explained by the fraying and fading of the feather. Under the influence of the sun, moisture, dryness, the color of the feather changes: black becomes brownish, dark brown becomes pale brown, gray becomes brownish-gray, etc. More higher value has abrasion of the edges of the feather, accompanied by a violation of its structure, since the small adhesive barbs are partially destroyed. Particularly weakly pigmented or non-pigmented parts of the feather become worn out. These changes are also more significant in the most important elements of the plumage during flight - the flight and tail feathers.

Wearing feathers has a detrimental effect on the flying properties of the bird. The most intense molting in adult birds occurs after the end of the breeding season. The alternation of the processes of reproduction and molting can find a partial explanation in the fact that both of them require a large amount of energy and therefore can hardly occur simultaneously in the bird’s body. The normal course of molting requires good nutrition of the body; weakening of nutrition causes a slowdown in the process of molting and irregularities in the structure of the feather (on large feathers, transverse depressions appear, running along the fan and making the feather fragile).

While the feather has not yet reached half of its normal length, its growth proceeds quickly, and then slows down. Small birds' feathers grow more slowly than large ones. In the sparrow, the secondary flight feathers grow at a rate slightly exceeding 4 mm per day; in the saker falcon, the daily growth of the flight feathers in the last period of growth is 6-7 mm per day. In every species of bird, molting occurs completely certain time and in a certain sequence.

4. Preparing for winter.

Birds migrate in search of food, feed intensively,

Due to this, metabolic processes intensify and fat accumulates. Some people harvest seeds, fruits, insects and their larvae (nuthatches, tits, jays, nutcrackers), and the corpses of mouse-like rodents.

In relation to the territory, birds are divided into sedentary, nomadic and migratory.

Bird flights. Slide show (slides no. 7 – 13)

Autumn migration begins after the young animals learn to fly. Before departure, birds often form flocks and sometimes migrate over long distances. Birds leave places with a cold climate earlier in the fall than warmer regions; in the spring they appear later in the north than in the south. Each species of bird flies and arrives at a certain time, although, of course, the weather affects the timing of departure and arrival.

Birds of the same species flyone by one , others -groups or flocks. Many species are characterized by a certain order of arrangement of birds in a flock. Finches and other passerines fly in random groups, crows - in sparse chains, curlews and oystercatchers - in a "line", geese and cranes - in a "corner". In most birds, males and females fly at the same time. But the females of the finch fly away in the fall before the males, and the males of the storks fly home in the spring before the females.

Young birdssometimes they fly away for the winter before the older ones. Some birds fly during the day, others at night, and stop to feed during the day. The flight speed of birds during migration is relatively low. For example, a quail has a speed of 41 km/h.Highest speed the black swift has a speed of 150 km/h. Flight altitude is average. Many small passerines fly low above the ground. Even lower - with a headwind, heavy clouds, precipitation. Large species they fly at an altitude of approximately 1-2 thousand m, medium and small ones - about 1000-500 m. However, in the Himalaya region, mountain geese were observed flying at an altitude of about 8 thousand m above sea level.

At such a flight speed, the birds could reach the wintering or nesting area in a relatively short time. But in reality, the flight usually lasts for for a long time. It is believed that birds during long-distance flights cover from 150 to 200 km per day. Thus, for example, passerine birds spend on a flight from Europe to Central Africa 2-3 and even 4 months.

Atspring migration Birds usually fly faster than in autumn. Some birds have to cover very long distances when migrating. Arctic terns from the Far North of America fly for the winter 10 thousand km to the south of the American continent, to southern Africa and even to Antarctica. Bee-eaters, which nest in Asia, winter in South Africa. About 30 species of birds that nest in Eastern Siberia winter in Australia, Far Eastern falcons in South Africa, and some American shorebirds in the Hawaiian Islands. In some cases, “land” birds are forced to fly over open sea from 3 to 5 thousand km.

Direction migration is determined not only by the location of wintering and nesting grounds, but also by places along their route that are favorable for feeding and resting. Therefore, not all birds in the northern hemisphere fly from north to south in the fall. Many northern European birds fly to the west and southwest in the fall and winter in Western Europe. It also happens that birds of a certain species from the northeastern strip of the European part of Russia fly south to the Caspian Sea, and their relatives from Western Siberia- to the southwest.

Methods for studying flights . Slide show (slides no. 16 – 17)

Scientists study bird migrations. Science is helped in this by direct observations. For example, by setting up several observation points on the sea coast where flocks of birds fly, you can determine the speed of flight of the flock and the number of birds in them.

Observation also establishes the timing of birds' arrival in the spring and departure in the fall, and these timings are repeated from year to year with great accuracy. In addition, bird ringing produces remarkable results. The study of bird migrations using the ringing method has definitively proven that for each bird and for each bird population of a certain area belonging to a given species, flights occur between the nesting site and the wintering site, and, as a rule, the bird returns in the spring to the same place where it hatched or nested in the previous one. year. This is closely related to the repeatedly noted conservatism of birds in relation to their habitat. Of course, individual deviations from the specified general scheme There are, but these are exceptions. Bird ringing is one of the methods of tagging animals; widely used for studying biology wild birds. A caught bird is put on a light (usually aluminum) ring (with a number and a conditional address) on its paw; The time and place of banding are recorded and reported to the banding centers. The USSR Ringing Center exchanges information about ringed birds with ringing centers in more than 50 countries on all continents. For the first time, CP was used for scientific purposes in Denmark (1899). Since then in different countries more than 30.5 million birds are marked with rings. Information about birds with rings that fell into the hands of a hunter, researcher, young bird, etc., are sent to the ringing center, which finds out when and where the bird was ringed. Birds are banded at the nesting site, along the flight route, during molting or during the winter. Individual and mass ringing is carried out. In individual ringing, the bird is ringed in order to make it noticeable during direct observation in nature; To do this, wear a large ring with a number that can be read through binoculars, or colored plastic tags. This method is usually used to study the behavior of individual individuals and in a number of experiments. In mass research, the population (population) of birds in a certain area is studied. To do this, hundreds and thousands of individuals are ringed at a certain point every year. Analysis of received reports of sightings of ringed birds allows us to judge the routes and timing of bird flights

V. Generalization and systematization of students’ knowledge

Generalizing frontal conversation while learning new material. Discuss what we learned in class. Students answer the questions:

What groups are birds divided into according to the way they endure unfavorable conditions?

How do birds navigate during migration?

What are some ways to help track birds?

Students' work in notebooks on this topic.

Filling out the table “Seasonal phenomena in the life of birds”

Period

Features of behavior

Spring period

Bird migrations are one of the most amazing natural phenomena. The history of the study of bird migrations begins with the works of Aristotle (4th century BC), in which he described the flight of some large birds via Greece. Aristotle knew that different species appear in the spring at different times, that birds in the fall are more plump than in the spring, and much more. He also had theories that some birds hibernate during the winter or transform into other species (the idea of transmutation). At that time, there were also ideas that birds hibernate underwater or fly to the moon, and small birds travel on the backs of large ones (for example, reluctantly flying corncrakes ride on cranes).

A significant step forward in the study of bird migration was made by the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II. He distinguished the places of molting and pre-departure aggregations, connected the timing of departure in different species with weather conditions, for the first time separated flights from migrations - both terminologically and in essence, noted the influence of weather on migration.

By the end of the 18th century, it was already clear that birds do not hide for the winter, do not sleep, and do not fly to the moon, but migrate. And in the 19th century, a targeted study of bird migrations began, which was based on the method of visual observation.

And at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. There was a revolution in the study of bird migrations - the ringing method was invented. A modest school teacher in the Danish city of Viborg, H. Mortensen (1856–1921), first ringed starlings with zinc plates in 1890. Since 1899, he had already used rings made of light metal, putting them on the legs of storks, ducks, and various seabirds. In addition to the serial number, Mortensen's address was stamped on each ring. Now 1899 is officially recognized as the year that bird ringing began, and Mortensen is the inventor of this method. Although, to be fair, it should be mentioned that attempts to band and tag birds were made long before this. In the Middle Ages, herons caught in hunts were marked with rings and plates before being released into the wild. Ornithologist of the mid-19th century. H. Frisch tied red threads to the swallows' paws. A hundred years before him, the Italian L. Spalanzani did this. In Russia they tried to mark cranes, in Holland - ducks and geese, putting rings on their necks. So the idea was literally in the air.

The new method quickly won the minds of ornithologists, and entire stations were created for catching and ringing birds. In Russia there is a Bird Banding Center, which organizes the production of rings and tags of a uniform type for Russia with the inscription “Moskwa”, and supplies rings and tags to all organizations that use methods of ringing and tagging birds. Data on encounters of ringed and tagged birds (about returns of rings, as ornithologists say) are also processed there. Of course, similar organizations exist in other countries, and they all actively cooperate - after all, migratory birds know no borders.

Thanks to ringing, it was possible to answer many interesting and important issues. The main directions of the flyways were studied various types birds and their wintering places. It was found out how many years some birds live, at what age they begin to nest, whether they return to old nesting sites, and much more.

Employees of the ornithological park in the Imereti Lowland also regularly carry out work on catching and ringing birds. Birds are caught using mist nets, ringed, the necessary measurements taken (length of beak, wing, tail and tarsus) and released. Best results Such work brings during the peak of the migration wave, when the number of birds and their activity is maximum.

Despite the fact that summer is not over yet, many species of birds are already flying for the winter. A high concentration of birds was noted by scientists at the ornithological park on August 5, and it was decided to organize a catch the next day. We were also lucky with the weather: on cloudy days it is easier to work - there is no sweltering heat - and the birds are more active. A total of 40 birds were ringed on August 6, including common nightingales, gray flycatchers, garden and gray warblers, blackbirds and marsh warblers, pale mockingbirds and others. In addition, flocks of black sandpipers and waders, little bitterns, gray and rufous herons, teal, hoopoes, kingfishers, quail and even a pheasant have been recorded. Flocks of pink starlings and laughing gulls flew by.

So, the bird migration season is open. This means that active bird ringing begins. Remember! It is very important that not a single ring from a caught or killed tagged bird disappears without a trace, but is sent to the ringing center. If you come across a ring or tag from a bird, you need to report the find to the Bird Banding Center at:

Bird Ringing Center, 117312 Moscow or by email: [email protected]

Your contribution to the collection of information will be especially complete and interesting for research if you indicate:

ring number (write down everything that is written on the ring: numbers and letters related to the number, as well as the name of the ringing center and country; date (day, month, year),
place (region, district, nearest locality or railway station),
the circumstances of the discovery of the ring (the bird was hunted, found dead, eaten by a cat, only the ring was found, etc.).

The ring or mark can be enclosed in a letter, or you can make a xerox, photo, or any other copy of the ring on which the inscriptions and ring number can be clearly read, or you can accurately copy the inscriptions from the ring. If you indicate your address in the message, then after processing the information from the Banding Center you will definitely be sent information about the type of bird, the place and date of its banding, and you will become one of the compilers of the banding database.

The fact that the mass movement of birds is an absolutely amazing and mysterious event was noticed by Aristotle 300 years before the birth of Christ. The great naturalist of antiquity already foresaw the main features of periodic migrations, for example, their main routes and geographical differences between nesting and wintering areas. However, along with these balanced judgments, he risked expressing others that would now only cause a smile.

For example, Aristotle argued that as the warm season approaches, the robin turns into a redstart and that swallows spend the winter in rocky grottoes and swamp mud, losing their feathers and hibernating. Until the 17th century, these fantastic theories were not categorically rejected, and only at the end of the next century the Dane G. Mortensen conducted the first studies of migratory birds (common starlings), marking them with metal rings.

Since then, the ringing technique has been improved and quickly spread throughout the world. There is an organization in Europe EURING (European Union for Bird Banding), founded in 1963 in Paris with the aim of creating a unified network of national ringing stations and bringing their operating methods to a common standard.

The constant search for environmental conditions favorable to life is the very spring that encourages birds to migrate. Thus, many waders, for example mudbirds, build a nest and raise their chicks in the tundra, taking advantage of the abundance of food - dipteran larvae - and the long length of the day, and then quickly leave it and spend the winter in the African savannah.

But what makes them fly away?

The punctuality with which migratory birds undertake their round trip each year is apparently related to an internal biological clock that determines a number of physiological phenomena and which is adjusted in accordance with environmental conditions and the needs of the individual species.

Innate instinct to migrate, excess food consumption ( hyperphagia), allowing the accumulation of large amounts of subcutaneous fat, and the so-called “migration state” are the main triggers for this phenomenon.

Most species commit regular movements(actually migration), although the route and method of flight may vary depending on the structure and lifestyle of the birds.

Great gliders, such as storks or birds of prey, can take advantage of the rising currents of warm air that form over the surface of the land, and therefore, avoiding long flights over the sea, they are crowded near narrow straits. In Europe, the most famous “bridges” are located in the areas of Gibraltar, the Strait of Messina and the Bosphorus.

Small birds are only capable of flapping flight, so they are forced to search tailwind and travel on a vast front that fills the entire Mediterranean basin.

How do birds manage to navigate?

This is perhaps the most surprising and somewhat unexplored aspect of ornithological research. The key mechanisms involved in navigation by birds, if we exclude information obtained genetically, are mainly three: the position of guiding stars, or rather constellations; perception of changes in the Earth's magnetic field and the position of the sun, which is compared with the readings of their own biological clock.

Migratory birds, in addition, also manage to navigate by the features of the land surface: coastlines, mountain passes, rivers, groups of islands, and so on.

Some species, such as homing pigeons, also use their sense of smell to return to their birthplace, following a veritable “smell trail.” Migrations most often take place between geographical zones located at different latitudes and during very specific periods of time, usually in autumn and spring.

As for the distance covered, these can be movements of short And long distances(short migrations are usually called wanderings), they can also occur randomly, en masse (the so-called “ bird infestations", or infestations).

A special type of migration - altitude movements, committed by mountain species that nest high in the mountains and spend the winter in the foothills or on the plain. Within one species there may be northern populations, whose members migrate to low latitudes for the winter, and southern populations, whose birds winter in or near breeding areas, but even within the same population there can be both migratory and sedentary individuals .

Average flight altitude varies depending on each species, the nature of the natural landscape and meteorological conditions. Small passerines, when crossing some extreme terrain, such as deserts, fly at night at an altitude of 1,000 meters, while they manage to cool their muscles, which are forced to withstand half a million wing beats!

Geese were observed flying over imposing mountain ranges some 9,000 meters high.

The 9-gram willow warbler must travel more than 12,000 kilometers to fly from Siberia, where it builds its nest, to its wintering grounds in Africa.

The Arctic Tern makes its seasonal movements back and forth between the Arctic and Antarctic zones, covering approximately 20,000 kilometers. These examples of long-distance flights are widely known, but they never cease to amaze researchers and ordinary readers, especially when we remember that every year individuals return to winter and build a nest in the same place!

The most successful method of studying bird migration has always been banding or other type of marking. A more modern and advanced means is the use of electronic equipment to directly trace the path of individuals equipped with a radio or microcomputer. Those wishing to conduct serious ornithological research can conduct a direct count of birds flying through mountain gorges and passes.

Those who just want to get an unforgettable experience can attach a telescope to a tripod, point it at the moon and... wait until the silhouette of a migratory bird flashes against its pale background!

bird migration, bird migration map
Under migration, or birds migrating imply the movement or resettlement of birds associated with changes in environmental or feeding conditions, or breeding characteristics. The ability of birds to migrate is facilitated by their high mobility, which is inaccessible to most other species of land animals.

1 Types of migrations
2 Resident birds
3 Nomadic birds
4 Migratory birds
- 4.1 Route forms
5 Flight destinations
6 See also
7 Literature

Types of migrations

Based on the nature of seasonal migrations, birds are divided into sedentary, nomadic, or migratory. In addition, under certain conditions, birds, like other animals, can be evicted from any territory without returning back, or invade (invade) regions outside their permanent habitat; such relocations are not directly related to migration. Eviction or introduction may be associated with natural changes in the landscape - forest fires, deforestation, drainage of swamps, etc., or with overpopulation of a particular species in a limited area. Under such conditions, birds are forced to look for a new place, and such movement has nothing to do with their lifestyle or seasons. Introductions are also often referred to as introductions - the deliberate relocation of species to regions where they have never lived before. The latter, for example, includes the common starling. Very often it is impossible to say unequivocally that this type birds are strictly sedentary, nomadic or migratory: different populations of the same species, and even birds of the same population can behave differently. For example, the wren in most of its range, including almost all of Europe and the subpolar Commander and Aleutian Islands, lives sedentary, in Canada and the northern United States it wanders over short distances, and in the north-west of Russia, Scandinavia and the Far East it is migratory. In the case of the common starling or blue jay (Cyanocitta cristata), a situation is possible where in the same territory some birds move south in winter, some arrive from the north, and some live sedentary.

Resident birds

Birds that stick to a certain small territory and do not move outside of it are called sedentary. The vast majority of species of such birds live in conditions where seasonal changes do not affect the availability of food - tropical and subtropical climates. There are few such birds in the temperate and northern zones; These in particular include synanthropes - birds that live near humans and depend on them: the rock pigeon, house sparrow, hoodie, jackdaw and some others. Some sedentary birds, which are also called semi-sedentary, move short distances from their nesting grounds outside the breeding season - in the territory Russian Federation Such birds include wood grouse, hazel grouse, black grouse, some magpies and the common bunting.. Sedentary birds of central Russia include:

Mallard (Partially migratory) - Anas platyrhynchos
Goshawk - Accipiter gentilis
Gyrfalcon - Falco rusticolus
Peregrine falcon - Falco peregrinus
Hazel grouse - Bonasa bonasia
Black grouse - Lyrurus tetrix
Capercaillie - Tetrao urogallus
Ptarmigan - Lagopus lagopus
Gray partridge - Perdix perdix
Little Gull - Larus minutus
Rock Pigeon - Columba livia
Eagle owl - Bubo bubo
Snowy owl - Nyctea scandiaca
Great Gray Owl - Strix nebulosa
Great-tailed owl - Strix uralensis
Gray owl - Strix aluco
Long-eared owl - Asio otus
Great-footed owl - Aegolius funereus
Little Owl - Athene noctua
Great Sparrow Owl - Glaucidium passerinum
Zhelna - Dryocopus martius
Gray Woodpecker - Picus canus
Green woodpecker - Picus viridis
Three-toed woodpecker - Picoides tridactylus
Big spotted woodpecker- Dendrocopos major
White-backed Woodpecker - Dendrocopos leucotos
Lesser Spotted Woodpecker - Dendrocopos minor
Gray Shrike - Lanius excubitor
Common waxwing - Bombycilla garrulus
Raven - Corvus corax
Hoodie - Corvus (corone) cornix
Common jackdaw - Corvus monedula
Nutcracker - Nucifraga caryocatactes
Kuksha - Perisoreus infaustus
Jay - Garrulus glandarius
Magpie - Pica pica
Common dipper - Cinclus cinclus
Fieldfare - Turdus pilaris
Blackbird - Turdus merula
Podlovnik - Aegithalos caudatus
Yellow-headed Kinglet - Regulus regulus
Great tit - Parus major
Blue Tit - Cyanistes caeruleus
Blue Tit - Cyanistes cyanus
Moskovka - Parus ater
Powderwing - Parus montanus
Black-headed Chickadee - Parus palustris
Grey-headed Chickadee - Parus cinctus
Tufted tit - Parus cristatus
Common nuthatch - Sitta europaea
Common pika - Certhia familiaris
Finch - Fringilla montifringilla
Goldfinch - Carduelis carduelis
Common greenfinch - Carduelis chloris
Siskin - Carduelis spinus
Common Redpoll - Carduelis flammea
Linnet - Carduelis cannabina
Schur - Pinicola enucleator
Spruce crossbill - Loxia curvirostra
Pine crossbill - Loxia pytyopsittacus
White-winged Crossbill - Loxia leucoptera
Common bullfinch - Pyrrhula pyrrhula
Common Grosbeak - Coccothraustes coccothraustes
Tree Sparrow - Passer montanus
House sparrow - Passer domesticus
Lapland plantain - Calcarius lapponicus
Bunting - Plectrophenax nivalis

Nomadic birds

Nomadic birds are birds that, outside the breeding season, constantly move from place to place in search of food. Such movements have nothing to do with cyclicity and depend entirely on the availability of food.

On the territory of Russia, nomadic birds include the tit, nuthatch, jay, crossbill, shura, siskin, bullfinch, waxwing, etc.

Migratory birds

Migratory birds make regular seasonal movements between nesting sites and wintering sites. Relocations can take place both close and long distances. According to ornithologists, the average flight speed for small birds is about 30 km/h, and for large birds about 80 km/h. Often takes place in several stages with stops for rest and feeding. The smaller the bird, the shorter the distance that they are able to cover at one time: small birds are able to fly continuously for 70-90 hours, while covering a distance of up to 4000 km.

Migratory birds of central Russia (the main species of the forest zone) include:

Great Great Grebe - Podiceps cristatus
White stork - Ciconia ciconia
Black stork - Ciconia nigra
Great bittern - Botaurus stellaris
Gray Heron - Ardea cinerea
Buzzard - Buteo buteo
Harrier - Circus cyaneus
Hobby - Falco subbuteo
Kestrel - Falco tinnunculus
Quail - Coturnix coturnix
Crake - Crex crex
Coot - Fulica atra
Lapwing - Vanellus vanellus
Ringed beetle - Charadrius hiaticula
Blackling - Tringa ochropus
Woodcock - Skolopax rusticola
Black-headed Gull - Larus ridibundus
Common Tern - Sterna hirundo
Klintukh - Columbia oenas
Common cuckoo - Cuculus canorus
Common nightjar - Caprimulgus europaeus
Black swift - Apus apus
Torquilla - Junx torquilla
Barn Swallow - Hirundo rustica
City swallow - Delichon urbica
Shoreline - Riparia riparia
Sky lark - Alauda arvensis
Forest Pipit - Anthus trivialis
White wagtail - Motacilla alba
Common Shrike - Lanius collurio
Common oriole - Oreolus oreolus
Wren - Troglodytes troglodytes
Wood Accentor - Prunella modularis
Fieldfare - Turdus pilaris
Deryaba - Turdus viscivorus
White-browed - Turdus iliacus
Song Thrush - Turdus philomelos
Blackbird - Turdus merula
Meadow stonechat - Saxicola rubetra
Common redstart - Phoenicurus phoenicurus
Robin - Erithacus rubecula
Common Nightingale - Luscinia luscinia
Bluethroat - Luscinia svecica
Garden warbler - Sylvia borin
Common Warbler - Sylvia communis
Common Whitethroat - Sylvia curruca
Black-headed Warbler - Sylvia atricapilla
Willow warbler - Phylloscopus trochilus
Chiffchaff - Phylloscopus collibita
Warbler - Phylloscopus sibilatrix
Green warbler - Phylloscopus trochiloides
Marsh Warbler - Acrocephalus palustris
Garden warbler - Acrocephalus dumetorum
Badger Warbler - Acrocephalus schoenobaenus
Common cricket - Locustella naevia
River cricket - Locustella fluviatilis
Gray Flycatcher - Muscicapa striata
Pied Flycatcher - Ficedula hypoleuca
Lesser Flycatcher - Ficedula parva
Finch - Fringila coelebs
Common lentil - Carpodacus erythrinus
Reed Bunting - Emberiza schoeniculus
Rook - Corvus frugilegus

Route forms

Separation migration.
Migration by riffles.
Circular migration. During circular migration, spring and autumn routes do not coincide with each other.

Migrations can be either horizontally directed (from one region to another while maintaining the familiar landscape) or vertically directed (to the mountains and back).

Flight Destinations

The directions of migration of birds are very diverse. For birds of the northern hemisphere, a typical flight is from the north (where the birds nest) to the south (where they winter), and back. This movement is typical for temperate and arctic latitudes of the northern hemisphere. The basis for such relocation is a complex of reasons, the main one of which lies in energy costs - in the summer in northern latitudes the length daylight hours increases, which gives diurnal birds more opportunity to feed their offspring: compared to tropical bird species, their egg laying is higher. In autumn, when the length of daylight hours decreases, birds move to warmer regions, where the food supply is less subject to seasonal fluctuations.

Literature

1 2 Bogolyubov A. S., Zhdanova O. V., Kravchenko M. V. “Handbook of ornithology. Bird migrations" Moscow, "Ecosystem", 2006 online
Introduced species Encyclopedia Britannica. Read 2008-09-02
Josep del Hoyo, Andrew Elliott, David A. Christie “Handbook of the Birds of the World, Vol. 10: Cuckoo-Shrikes to Thrushes" Lynx Editions. 2005. ISBN 84-87334-72-5
Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center Migration of Birds. Geographic Patterns of Migration. Read 2007-09-02
Wintering birds of central Russia
1 2 Berthold, P. 1993. Bird migration: a general survey. Oxford University Press, New York, New York, USA.
1 2 Thomas Alerstam "Bird Migration" Cambridge University Press
Bird migration Universitetet i Oslo. Read 2007-09-02
This table includes 58 species of birds found in the forest zone of central Russia mainly during the nesting period (from May to August). The order of species in the list corresponds to their systematic position.