The main factors influencing pricing. Factors affecting pricing in marketing. Practical pricing policies

abstract

Factors influencing the process of pricing in world markets

Performed:

When analyzing the processes associated with pricing in world commodity markets, it is necessary to carefully study all the factors influencing price formation, such as general order, and purely applied ones. It depends on prices which costs of producers will be reimbursed after the sale of the goods, which are not, what is the level of income, profits and where they will be, and whether resources will be directed in the future, whether there will be incentives for further expansion of foreign economic activity (FEA).

In a market economy, pricing in foreign trade, as well as in the domestic market, is carried out under the influence of a specific market situation. In principle, the very concept of price is similar both for the characteristics of the domestic market and for the characteristics of the external one.

The price, including in international trade, is the amount of money that the seller intends to receive by offering a product or service, and which the buyer is ready to pay for this product or service. .

The coincidence of these two requirements depends on many conditions, called "pricing factors". By nature, level and scope, they can be divided into five groups listed below.

General economic , those. operating regardless of the type of product and the specific conditions of its production and sale. These include:

Business cycle;

The state of aggregate supply and demand;

Inflation.

Specifically economic , those. determined by the characteristics of this product, the conditions of its production and sale. These include:

Costs;

Profit;

Taxes and fees;

Supply and demand for this product or service, taking into account fungibility;

Consumer properties: quality, reliability, appearance, prestige.

Specific , those. applicable only to certain types of goods and services:

seasonality;

Operating costs;

Completeness;

Warranties and conditions of service.

special, those. associated with the operation of special mechanisms and economic instruments:

State regulation;

Exchange rate.

Non-economic , political, military.

As noted above, prices are determined by the conditions of competition, the state and ratio of supply and demand. However, on international market the pricing process is unique. With this in mind, the effect of the above groups of pricing factors should also be considered.

Take, for example, supply and demand. It is known that the ratio of supply and demand in the conditions of the world market is felt by the subjects foreign trade much sharper than the suppliers of products in the domestic market. A participant in international trade faces a greater number of competitors in the market than in the domestic market. He must see the world market before him, constantly compare his production costs not only with domestic market prices, but also with world ones. Manufacturer-seller of goods on foreign market is in constant "price stress" mode. Significantly more in the international market and buyers.

Secondly, within the world market, factors of production are less mobile. No one will dispute the fact that the freedom of movement of goods, capital, services and work force significantly lower than within a single state. Their movement is constrained by national borders, relations in the monetary sphere, which counteracts the alignment of costs and profits. Naturally, all this cannot but affect the formation of world prices.

Under the world prices are understood the prices of large export-import transactions concluded in the world commodity markets, in the main centers of world trade.

The concept of "world commodity market» means a set of stable, repetitive transactions for the purchase and sale of these goods and services that have organizational international forms (exchanges, auctions, etc.), or are expressed in systematic export-import transactions of large supplier and buyer firms.

And in world trade, the factors under the influence of which market prices are formed, first of all, of course, include the state of supply and demand.

Practically, the price of the offered goods is affected by:

The solvent demand of the buyer of this product, i.e. simply put, the availability of money;

The volume of demand is the quantity of goods that the buyer is able to purchase;

The usefulness of the product and its consumer properties.

On the supply side, the constituent pricing factors are:

The quantity of goods offered by the seller on the market;

Costs of production and circulation in the sale of goods on the market;

Prices for resources or means of production used in the production of the relevant good.

A common factor is the substitution of the goods offered for sale by others that satisfy the buyer. The level of world prices is affected by the payment currency, payment terms and some other, both economic and non-economic factors.

In the world market, cases of “distortion in the balance of supply and demand” are possible. In the event of a huge demand for a product, a situation may arise in which a product produced in the worst conditions at a national price will be thrown onto the market, which, in essence, will determine the world price for some time and which will certainly be very high. Conversely, often the supply greatly exceeds the demand. Then the bulk of sales falls on those subjects of international trade, the production conditions in which are the best, and prices are lower. (In this context, it is useful to note such a nuance: even if largest manufacturer goods in any country is the largest supplier of this product to the national market, this does not mean that it will take a leading position in the world market.

Often, on the international market, most of the goods are sold by countries that are not, from an economic point of view, large and powerful powers.).

When working with market prices, including foreign trade prices, one should take into account the differences in them, taking into account the positions of individual parties and the market situation.

First, there are the concepts of "seller's price", i.e. offered by the seller, and therefore relatively higher, and "buyer's prices", i.e. accepted and paid by the buyer, and therefore relatively lower.

Secondly, depending on the market situation, the "seller's market", in which, due to the predominance of demand, commercial indicators and prices are dictated by the seller, and the "buyer's market", in which, due to the predominance of supply, the buyer dominates and the situation in terms of prices is opposite. But this market situation is constantly changing, which is reflected in prices. And this means that it should be the subject of constant observation and study. Otherwise, very serious errors are possible in determining prices.

In the last two or three decades important role in the pricing of goods, especially in world trade, are related services provided by the manufacturer and supplier of any product to the importer or final consumer. It's about about the generally accepted terms of delivery: Maintenance, warranty repair, other specific types of services related to the promotion, sale and use of goods.

This aspect is especially important in modern conditions, in the period of development high technology, complication of machines and equipment. There are known examples when the cost of services in the export of equipment and machinery accounted for 60 percent of the supply price.

The development of science and technology, influencing the improvement of the qualitative characteristics of the goods, on the other hand, affects world prices. The introduction of new technologies increases labor productivity, production efficiency, and reduces labor costs. Under the conditions of scientific and technological revolution, in absolute terms, the price is growing for almost all groups of goods. However, taking into account the so-called. useful effect (for example, increases the speed, reliability, etc.) the relative cost of the product, and hence its price for the consumer is reduced.

When analyzing prices, one should also take into account the movement of the economic cycle, which in the field of international economic relations has a certain specificity. So, in the stage of depression, prices, as a rule, do not rise. Conversely, in the upswing stage, due to the excess of demand over supply, prices increase. (Although both apply to international trade slowly, depending on the scope and depth of these phenomena, and even more so in the phase of crisis and recovery).

It should be noted that depending on the type of goods and commodity groups price dynamics are different. Thus, when the market conditions change, prices change most sharply and quickly for almost all types of raw materials, the reaction of producers and suppliers of semi-finished products is slower, and the “price reaction” to the products of the machine-building complex is even weaker.

In a market economy, the process of pricing in trade between foreign economic entities different countries is carried out in a competitive environment, a dynamic balance between supply and demand, as well as comparative freedom of behavior in the market of the exporter and importer. However, these postulates require amendments depending on the type of market. The main criterion for classifying types of markets, including world markets, is the nature and degree of freedom of competition. Economists distinguish four types of markets:

Market of perfect (pure) competition;

Pure monopoly market;

Market monopolistic competition;

By pursuing a certain policy in the field of pricing, the organization actively influences both the volume of sales and the amount of profit received. As a rule, the organization is not guided by obtaining momentary benefits by selling the product at the highest possible price, but pursues a flexible pricing policy.
The complexity of price management is due to the fact that its formation is affected by many factors. various factors not only internal, but also external.
Marketing pricing is influenced by two groups of factors:
1. External (affect the level of demand):
- state of demand,
- market competition.
Four types of markets:
= pure competition - a market with a large number of sellers, but none of them influences the formation of the market price (wheat);
= monopolistic competition - a market with a large number of sellers and buyers with different prices for one type of product;
= oligopolistic competition - a market with a small number of sellers, each of which is sensitive to the price of other products. It can be either homogeneous (oil) or heterogeneous (auto and PC);
= pure monopoly is a one-seller market. Monopoly can be:
- - state (postal service),
- - private regulated (power supply),
- - private unregulated (Microsoft).
- economic factors: inflation, interest rates, income levels,
- government factors: Legislative measures that limit the prices of products.
2. Internal (have an impact on profit):
- marketing goals of the company:
= company survival in the market becomes the main goal when there is a crisis of overproduction, intense competition, a change in the tastes of buyers,
= maximization of current profit - the company determines the reason for the demand and sets the price at which maximum profit occurs,
= market share maximization - low prices,
= quality dominance in the market .
- marketing mix strategy,
- costs determine the minimum price (constant, independent of the volume of production, and variables that depend on it),
- stages of life cycle, - policy of suppliers and intermediaries.
The price is one of the elements of the marketing mix, so the choice of price is determined taking into account the choice of strategies relative to other elements of the marketing mix. For example, the price depends on the quality of the product, the cost of its promotion, and the stage of the product's life cycle.
Pricing policy is strongly influenced by competitors and their possible reaction to price changes in the market. Therefore, studying the prices of competitors is an important element of the activity in the field of pricing. If the price is based on the price of competitors, costs or demand cease to play a decisive role, especially when it is difficult to measure the elasticity of the latter, that is, to determine the impact of price changes on demand.

Price is the amount of money paid for certain commodity or a service. In other words, price is a component of an exchange or transaction between two interested parties: a buyer and a seller. Price is an important element of any product, and the process and principles of pricing a product are an important part of a company's marketing strategy.

The material of the article is an introduction to the theory of pricing and is intended to form the correct basic knowledge about the process of setting prices for a product. Here we will talk about the importance of price for a company's product, consider in detail the factors that affect the price of a product, and describe the basic principles of pricing a product.

What is "price"?

There are at least 4 points of view on the concept of "price": from the point of view of an economist, the price is set through the interaction of two market forces - supply and demand, from the point of view of an accountant, the price should cover the costs of producing goods and ensure profit, from the point of view of the consumer, the price is an indicator product value, and from the point of view of the seller, the price provides an opportunity to gain a competitive advantage.

The pricing process is not limited to commercial organizations, but can also be used by non-profit companies - charitable foundations, trade and industrial associations, etc. For example, charitable foundations may, as part of the pricing process, set different “target donation levels” and offer “donors” different conditions and statuses depending on the amount of donations (indication of the company logo in the organization’s brochure, etc.)

Factors affecting the price

Pricing is a time-consuming process, as many factors must be taken into account in order to establish the right competitive price: product cost, marketing mix and product positioning, life cycle product, the competitive environment and the nature of consumer demand, as well as the economic and political norms of the country.

Detailed description of the factors affecting the final price of the product:

Pricing Factors	Description
Pricing Factors	Description
Product cost	The sum of variable and fixed costs that a company incurs when producing 1 unit of output. The cost of producing a good or service is one of the key factors in setting prices. If the selling price is lower than the cost of goods, then the company will incur losses.
	The price should match the target market, the target consumer and the distribution channels in which the product is planned to be sold.
Positioning	The price helps to create the right image of a product or service: luxury, mass market, economy segment.
Product life cycle	Different stages of the life cycle require a different approach to the pricing strategy, as they have different goals.
The goals of the company when releasing a product	Target profitability of the product and market goals of the company.
Competitors' prices	The price of a product should take into account the price competitive environment and price clusters that have formed on the market.
The level of competition in the market	Monopoly allows you to set inflated prices, while free competition helps to equalize prices for the same type of goods.
Forecast of competitors' actions	It is necessary to predict the consequences of pricing decisions. For example, setting a price too low can lead to a price war that is of no interest to either side.
Price perception by buyers	A competitive price is based on consumer perception of the value of the product: a product that is too cheap may seem to the consumer of poor quality, and a product that is too high can scare away potential consumers
Elasticity of demand	The demand curve shows the relationship between the quantity of a good and its price, in other words, it shows the quantity of a good that one wants to buy. the target audience at different retail prices.
The state of the economy	During economic crises, the demand for goods in the economy segment increases, and the consumer's sensitivity to price increases.
Legal regulations in the market	From a legal point of view, a country may have certain laws prohibiting price discrimination or setting a maximum price threshold for certain types of goods.

Pricing Process

The sequence of the following 10 actions, which can be called the main stages of the product pricing strategy, helps to develop a marketing pricing strategy correctly:

• Determining pricing goals
• Calculation of the cost of goods and the forecast of costs with an increase in the scale of production
• Determination of the break-even point
• Assessment of demand from the target audience
• Estimating the elasticity of demand, determining the relationship between demand, costs and profits
• Assessing the perception of the price of a product in the target market
• Competitor price analysis
• Determination of price positioning relative to competitors
• Approval of pricing strategy and tactical measures
• Price setting

It is important to set the target correctly.

The goals of the pricing process can be divided into 2 groups: financial and marketing. Financial goals describe profit and sales targets, while marketing goals describe the company's wishes regarding the position of the product in the industry and the perception of the product's image by the target audience.

Financial goals can be formulated in terms of maximizing profits, revenue and sales; in achieving a certain level of profit and sales; in achieving a certain level of profitability of the product.

Marketing objectives are an extension of the product positioning and promotion strategy and are defined in terms of maintaining or increasing market share; interactions with competitors (price war, preventive actions); in building a certain price positioning; in reaching the level of trial purchases and attracting a certain% of the target audience to the company's product.

Classification of pricing decisions

In the pricing process, the marketing specialist needs to make and approve three important decisions: a single pricing method, pricing strategy, and pricing policy in terms of tactical pricing measures.

The pricing method determines how the cost of a product is calculated, taking into account available costs and the scale of production. The pricing strategy defines the principles of long-term price management of the product. The pricing strategy should not contradict the marketing strategy of the product, determine price positioning relative to competitors, determine pricing strategies in sales channels, the need for price discrimination, and have a price development vector throughout the life cycle. The definition of tactical pricing measures affects the issues of pricing policy in the field of discounts, promotions for temporary price reductions in sales channels, package pricing conditions.

Price setting is a difficult and complex process that requires taking into account a large number of factors. All factors influencing pricing can be divided into two groups - external and internal.

Factors external environment affecting the pricing process.

1. Consumers. Buyers significantly influence the activities of enterprises in the field of pricing. In order to properly respond and take into account their behavior, the company needs to have certain knowledge about the general patterns and characteristics of their behavior in the market. This includes, first of all, psychological aspects customer behavior: needs, needs, requests, motivation when choosing a product or service, ways of consumption, attitude to goods and services, attitude to the new, consumer sensitivity to prices and quality of goods and services.

In addition to psychological, there are economic aspects buyer behavior. This includes concepts such as purchasing power, budget constraints and their relationship to consumer preferences. Due to the fact that the budget of the buyer is limited, and prices are subject to constant changes, the buyer is constantly faced with a choice: how to use his budget in the most rational way, which product to buy and which not. According to the theory of marginal utility and consumer choice, the buyer will prefer the product that best matches his personal idea of ​​the utility of the upcoming purchase, combined with his financial capabilities.

• 2. Market environment. The market environment is a very complex and multifaceted concept. It is formed under the influence of a large number of economic, political and cultural order. Usually there are four main market models: pure competition, monopolistic competition, oligopoly, pure monopoly. In terms of pricing, the main hallmark these markets is the degree of influence of the enterprise on the establishment of the market price. The maximum influence is in the condition of monopoly, the minimum - in the conditions of the market perfect competition. The price in the market can be controlled by an individual firm, a group of firms, the state and the market.
• 3. Members of distribution channels. Product distribution is a process that ensures the delivery of goods to the final consumer. It is known that there are three main types of distribution channels:

direct - goods and services are delivered to the final consumer without the participation of intermediaries;

indirect - goods and services are delivered to the final consumer with the help of one or more intermediaries;

mixed - combine the features of the first two types of channels.

From the point of view of pricing, the influence of the participants in the distribution channels on the increase in prices is of interest. The greater the number of intermediaries between the manufacturer of the product and its end user, the more the retail price will be higher than the selling price, the original price of the enterprise - the manufacturer of this product. Ultimately, this leads to a limitation of demand for goods and services, which, in turn, stimulates price reduction and thus helps to optimize the distribution channels. At the same time, in the case of a multiplier effect, the situation may be exactly the opposite - in the process of price growth, the phenomenon of unlimited demand will be observed, since an inflationary price spiral will set in motion - wage.

• 4. State. There are three degrees of government influence on pricing
• 4.1 Fixing prices. The state uses the following main methods of fixing prices - the use of price lists. Price lists for goods and services is an official collection of prices and tariffs, approved and published by ministries, departments, state pricing bodies. Usually, the prices of monopoly enterprises are subject to regulation with the help of price lists: electricity, gas, oil, utilities, transport. Prices for these products cause a multiplier effect in the economy, so their fixation at a certain level contributes to the stabilization of the entire economic situation and determines the degree of price stability in all other areas. Fixing prices at a level above the market price leads to a state of excess supply in the market, fixing prices at a level below the market price - to a shortage.

fixation monopoly prices. The state fixes the prices of enterprises that occupy a dominant position in the market, which allows it to decisively influence competition, market access and price levels, which ultimately limits the freedom of action of other market participants. Under Russian law, an enterprise occupies a dominant (monopolistic) position if its market share is between 35% and 65%;

freezing prices. This approach is used in case of disproportions in prices or crisis situations in the economy and is carried out solely for the purpose of stabilizing the situation. It is considered expedient to apply price freezes only in the short term.

4.2 Price regulation through price caps

(setting an upper or lower price limit), the introduction of fixed coefficients in relation to list prices, the establishment of marginal markups, the regulation of the main parameters that affect the formation of prices (the procedure for setting costs, the maximum profit, the size and structure of taxes), the establishment of the maximum size of a one-time increase prices, determination and regulation of prices for products and services of state enterprises.

4.3 Regulation of the system of free pricing through legislative regulation of pricing

activity of market participants, restriction of unfair competition. This method of state influence on the pricing process consists in the introduction of a number of prohibitions:

ban on dumping - a ban on the sale of goods below the cost of its production in order to eliminate competitors. It is especially important if there is a leader in the market, seeking to force competitors out of the market or prevent their entry into this market.

a ban on vertical price fixing - a ban on manufacturers to dictate their prices to intermediaries, wholesalers and retailers.

ban on horizontal price fixing - a ban on the agreement of several manufacturers to maintain product prices at a certain level, if the aggregate market share of these enterprises will provide them with a dominant position in the market. This limitation is especially relevant in an oligopolistic market. However, it is easy to ignore it, for example, if an oligopolistic enterprise agrees among themselves not on a single price, but on a single method for calculating costs and determining the price of final products.

Internal factors should also be taken into account when pricing. The most important place among these factors is the cost. It is necessary to compare the amount of costs with the possibility of covering them when setting the price. The survival of the company depends on the extent to which not only operating costs are covered, but also the costs associated with capital investments calculated for a long period.

Factors internal environment that affect the pricing process:

Production cost

Need to cover long-term capital investments

Quality of materials and labor

Labor intensity of production

Using limited resources

In practice, when pricing enterprises take into account information as about the market ( external factors) and costs (internal factors).

The formation of prices is significantly influenced by the so-called pricing factors. They represent various objective conditions that predetermine the level, structure, proportions and dynamics of prices for goods and services.

The main factors affecting the price level are:

1) supply and demand;

2) competition;

3) the state of the financial and credit system;

4) state regulation prices;

5) the behavior of participants in distribution channels and consumers;

6) costs of production and sale of products.

Demand plays a key role in determining the price of a product. The volume of demand is determined by the amount of goods that the buyer is willing to purchase under given conditions during a certain period of time. Demand depends on many factors (for example, the price of substitute goods, the number of buyers, etc.), the main of which is the price of the goods.

The relationship between the price of a good (P) and the demand for it (Q) is described in Chart 1.

Graph 1 "Demand Curve".

The demand curve establishes an inverse relationship between the price of a good and its quantity. Indeed, the higher the price, the fewer goods at that price can be bought. On the other hand, an increase in the number of goods on sale causes a decrease in the price of it.

Supply plays an equally important role in setting the market price. Supply is the quantity of a product that sellers are able and willing to offer to the buyer in certain time and in a certain place. The relationship between the price of a good (P) and its supply (Q) can be represented in Chart 2.

Graph 2 "Supply Curve"

The supply curve establishes a directly proportional relationship between the price of a good and its quantity, i.e. price increases interest manufacturers in increasing sales volumes.

The magnitude of the supply of goods (as the magnitude of demand), in addition to price, is influenced by other factors: for example, the prices of competing goods, the number of sellers, the level of production technology, public policy in the field of taxation, etc.

Under the influence of these factors, the supply curve can shift in one direction or another. So, for example, with an increase in the number of sellers selling goods at the same price P1, the supply increases from Q1 to Q2.

The price at which supply and demand are equal is called the equilibrium price. This is exactly the price at which the product will be sold. Consider Chart 3.

Consider the mechanism of market pricing for a free competitive market, where the demand and supply of a product mainly depends on its price.

If buyers want to buy a product at a price that is below the equilibrium price, then demand will be greater than supply. There is a shortage of goods. As a result, the price will increase until supply equals demand.

If the sellers sell the goods at a price that is higher than the equilibrium price, then the supply will be higher than the demand. There is an excess of goods. As a result, the price will decrease until supply and demand balance.

Thus, in a free competitive market, in conditions where the demand and supply of goods mainly depend on price, an equilibrium market price is established, which corresponds to the point of intersection of the supply and demand curves.

In the real market, in addition to price, there are a number of other non-price factors, which affect supply and demand, which leads to a shift in the corresponding curves. At the same time, the equilibrium price also changes.

1. The case of fixed supply (unchanged supply, independent of non-price factors) and demand changing under the influence of the same factors.

As can be seen from Chart 4, as the demand for the product increases, which corresponds to the curve moving from position C1 to position C2 and further to position C3, the equilibrium point shifts from position 1 to position 2 and then to position 3. At the same time, the equilibrium price Рр, respectively increases from the value of Pp1 to the value of Pp2 and further to the value of Pp3. In the case of a decrease in demand for a product (with an unchanged offer), the opposite picture takes place, i.e. the equilibrium price falls.

2. The case of fixed demand (that is, independent of non-price factors) and supply changing under the influence of the same factors.

As can be seen from Graph 5, as the supply of goods increases, which corresponds to the shift of the supply curve from state P1 to state P2 and then P3, the equilibrium point moves from position 1 to position 2 and then to position 3. In this case, the equilibrium price decreases from the level PP1 to the level of PP2 and PP3. In the case of a decrease in supply (with a constant demand), the reverse picture is observed (i.e., the equilibrium price increases).

Unlike a free competitive market, real markets are more or less monopolized.

In a monopoly market, the demand for a product follows the demand curve, and the supply curve is determined by the behavior of the market monopolist. He is guided by the desire for a given demand to extract as much profit as possible by selling the goods, and on this basis he builds his offer of the goods. Thus, in the monopoly market, along with demand, the price is formed under the influence of the principle of maximizing the profit of the producer (seller) of the goods.

We also consider competition and its impact on the price level.

Competition is both price and non-price. Under price competition, firms-sellers, following the demand curve, reduce prices below market prices. At the same time, competitors who do not have the ability to reduce the price cannot stay on the market: they leave it or go bankrupt.

In the case of non-price competition, sellers try to attract buyers primarily with the unique properties of the product, for example, its technical reliability or high quality.

Depending on the forms of competition, it is also customary to distinguish the following types of markets:

1) The market of pure (“free”) competition;

2) The market is monopolistic competition;

3) Market of oligopolistic competition;

4) The market of pure ("absolute" monopoly).

The market of pure (free) competition consists of many sellers and buyers of interchangeable goods that do not have much influence on the level of current prices. Since the number of sellers and buyers in such a market is quite large, for example, several thousand, none of them is able to influence the processes, and, above all, current prices. In such an ideal market, the seller and the manufacturer behind him can improve their position only by reducing the cost of production or improving its quality. This achieves a simultaneous gain for the producer and the consumer, who buys goods at lower prices.

The market of monopolistic competition also consists of many sellers and buyers (although there are fewer of them than in the previous free market). In this market, sellers are able to offer buyers different options for goods at a wide range of prices. In such a market, the importance of non-price factors is great.

The most typical for a modern market economy is the so-called oligopolistic market. This market, consisting of a small number of sellers who are very sensitive to pricing policy and marketing strategies competitors. This is explained by the fact that oligopolistic market each of its participants occupies a fairly significant position, since it accounts for a significant part of the sales.

The state of the financial and credit system also has a significant impact on the level and dynamics of prices. The relationship between prices and finance is clearly seen primarily in the distribution function of price. In accordance with this function, those principles and forms of distribution are realized through prices. public product, which are accepted in this economic system. So, for example, on the one hand, prices provide producers with reimbursement of current costs and a part of the profit remaining after paying all types of taxes. In turn, taxes and deductions, being sources of replenishment of the state budget, the formation of off-budget funds, ensure close interaction between pricing and the entire financial system.

The pricing process is also influenced by the behavior of all participants in the distribution channels - from the manufacturer to the wholesaler and retail. All of them seek to increase the volume of sales of goods, to establish greater control over prices in order to maximize profits. For example, manufacturers open their own stores, where they trade at lower prices.

Prices are also affected by the behavior of consumers (buyers). In this regard, all buyers, depending on their perception of prices for goods and orientation in purchases, can be divided into four groups:

1) Thrifty buyers who, when choosing a purchase, are more interested in prices, quality and assortment of goods;

2) Personalized buyers, i.e. as if creating for themselves a certain image of the product they want to buy;

3) Ethical buyers who, according to a long-established tradition, purchase goods in certain stores, regardless of prices and assortment of goods;

4) Apathetic buyers who, when choosing a purchase, focus not on price, but on the convenience and comfort received from the purchase of goods.

The last pricing factor is the cost, or costs of production and sale of products. These costs form the basis of the price of goods and largely determine its level. For example, in industry, the share of production costs in the selling price of an enterprise (excluding VAT and excises) is over 80%, and railway transport- more than 85%.

The composition of costs includes costs, both dependent and independent of the activities of the enterprise, i.e. external to him. For example, the cost of raw materials, materials, fuel, energy, transport tariffs are factors external to the enterprise. An increase in these costs causes an increase in the price of the product. Here, the enterprise can influence the price reduction only indirectly, for example, by choosing cheap suppliers. Another group of costs - such as wages, overhead costs depend on the activities of the enterprise and can be regulated.

Depending on the strength of its position in the market, the company can maneuver the prices of goods. If the position of the company is not stable enough and the increase in product prices is undesirable, then, for example, the rise in the cost of raw materials can be compensated to a certain extent by reducing the consumption rates of raw materials or by using secondary resources.