Studying the motivation of children and adolescents. Motivation Motivation is what the activity is for. () Motivation is a complex mechanism for correlating a person's external and internal. L.I. Bozovic. The problem of the development of the child's motivational sphere
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Introduction
Chapter 1. Theoretical foundations of adolescent behavior motivation
1.1 The concept and components of the motivational sphere of a person
1.2 Features of the motivational sphere of adolescents
Chapter 2. Formation of motivation for behavior of adolescents
2.1 Self-esteem of adolescents as a tool for the formation of positive motivation
2.2 Methods, means and techniques for the formation of motivation of behavior of adolescents in the context of a comprehensive school
Conclusion
Bibliography
Introduction
Relevance of the topic... The problem of motivating adolescent behavior at the present stage of development of Russian society is more urgent than ever. The economic and social development of our country depends on what the youth will be like in the 21st century.
Motivation during adolescence is of exceptional interest to educators and parents. Essentially, no effective social and pedagogical interaction with a teenager is possible without taking into account the peculiarities of his motivation. There may be completely different reasons behind the objectively identical actions of adolescents, in other words, the incentive sources of these actions, their motivation, may be completely different.
The developments of modern psychologists in the field of motivation are associated with an analysis of the sources of human activity, the incentive forces of his activity, behavior.
I.A. Zimnaya determined that motivation, as a psychological category, is one of the fundamental problems of both domestic and foreign psychology. Also I.A. Zimnyaya emphasizes that the main methodological principle that determines the study of the motivational sphere in Russian psychology is the provision on the unity of the dynamic (energetic) and content-semantic sides of motivation. The active development of this principle is associated with the study of such problems as the system of human relations (V.N. Myasishchev), the ratio of meaning and meaning (A.N. Leontiev), the integration of motives and their semantic context (S.L. Rubinshtein), the orientation of the personality and dynamics of behavior (L.I.Bozhovich, V.E. Chudnovsky), orientation in activity (P.Ya. Galperin), etc. In Russian psychology, motivation is considered as a complex multi-level regulator of a person's vital activity (his behavior, activity), the highest level of which is conscious-volitional (V.G. Aseev). All this allows us to define motivation, on the one hand, as a multi-level heterogeneous system of motivators (including needs, motives, interests, ideals, emotions, norms, values, etc.), and on the other hand, to talk about the polymotivation of human activity and behavior. and about the dominant motive in their structure.
The relevance of the above determined the choice of the research topic “ Motivation of adolescent behavior».
Object of study: motivation of adolescent behavior.
Subject of study: conditions for the formation of motivation of behavior in adolescents.
Purpose of the study- consider the motivation of adolescent behavior.
In accordance with the subject and purpose of the study, the following tasks:
1. Study and analyze psychological and pedagogical literature.
2. Describe the concept and components of the motivational sphere of a person.
3. Consider the features of the motivational sphere of adolescents.
4. Determine the role of adolescent self-esteem as a tool for the formation of positive motivation.
5. Consider the methods, means and techniques of forming the motivation of adolescents' behavior in the context of a comprehensive school.
Work structure: the work consists of an introduction, two chapters, a conclusion and a bibliography.
Chapter 1. Theoretical foundations of adolescent behavior motivation
1.1 The concept and components of the motivational sphere of a person
Motivation (from Lat. Movere - motivation to action) is one of the fundamental problems of psychology, both domestic and foreign. The complexity and multidimensionality of the problem of motivation determines the multiplicity of approaches to understanding its essence, nature, structure, as well as methods of studying it (A. Maslow, B. G. Ananiev, J. Atkinson, L. I. Bozhovich, K. Levin, A. N. Leontiev, S.L. Rubinstein, 3.Freud and others).
In the structure of personality (according to K.K. Platonov), the orientation of the personality is especially highlighted, which is expressed by the attitude of a person to the world around him, which is determined, first of all, by needs. In psychology, need is seen as a source of personality activity. The activity of a person can be aimed at establishing equilibrium with the environment, adapting to the impact, mainly on self-regulation, on self-preservation, self-development, creation of something new, etc.
Psychologists recognize different levels of human activity in behavior and activity according to the level of organization of the subject: individual - personality - individuality (B. G. Ananiev); organism - individual - personality (M.G. Yaroshevsky); individual - subject - personality (Sh.A. Nadirashvili). The main criterion for characterizing the levels of human activity is the development of the psyche from unconscious to conscious. Some authors call superconscious activity the highest level of human mental activity (P.V. Simonov).
Thus, the activity of the psyche consists in the following: firstly, subjective images exist in a person separately from the reflected objects, secondly, new images are created, projects of future material realities, and thirdly, these images can affect their material carrier, induce person to action, correct them, form the need for information about the external and internal environment, change the world around. It should be noted that the subjective world of a person differs from the surrounding world. The need and the ability to see life subjectively cause an internal impulse to transform objective reality in a mental image.
Signs of mental activity are considered volitional efforts (A.F. Lazursky, M.Ya. Basov, P.P. Blonsky), the manifestation and tension of energy (V.M. Bekhterev, V.Wundt), instincts, the unconscious (W.M. Daugall, Z. Freud), reaction, holistic behavior (K.N. Kornilov), various forms of behavior caused by the formation and use of social signs-stimuli (L. S. Vygotsky), the presence of an attitude (D. N. Uznadze), attention (N.F. Dobrynin), delayed reflex (I.M. Sechenov), refraction of the external through the internal (S.L. Rubinstein), selectivity of relations and a measure of personality stability (A.F. Lazursky), etc.
The dynamic limits of mental activity are set by the type of the nervous system. In particular, G. Eysenck argued that "the basis of extraverted and introverted behavior are innate features of the central nervous system, the ratio of excitation and inhibition processes."
The regulation of behavior, human activity is determined by his potentials, needs, orientations, values and goals. For example, socio-psychological activity is directly regulated by the circle of communication of people, the style of relationships, the scope of joint activities, situations of conflict, assistance or opposition. As a result of the maximum variety of forms of communication, an optimal set of standards of behavior is formed. Thus, we can conclude that, ultimately, regulation allows for targeted, organized mental activity.
Mental activity consists in the fact that a person directly and indirectly reflects, regulates, predicts, encourages himself and others to activity. Socio-psychological activity is the general mental activity of an individual, a group, the content of which is socially significant goals, values, regulated by appropriate norms of behavior and activity, aimed at the object of cognition and at the subject himself. Social activity is activity, both of a specific individual and of a community as a whole, expressed in socially significant types of activity, directed both at people and at all spheres of nature and society that have social value.
Thus, the multifunctionality of the psyche corresponds to the variety of types of human activity. The interrelation of the properties constituting the psyche makes the behavior, types of activity, forms of human activity an integral phenomenon and manifests itself in the orientation of the personality, style, character.
Consider, in particular, the orientation of the personality. The orientation of a person's personality is called a set of stable motives that orient the activity of a person and are relatively independent of situations. Motive is what prompts a person to activity and gives meaning to his activity. Activity is a specifically human activity regulated by consciousness, generated by needs and aimed at cognizing and transforming the external world and the person himself. Personality is both formed and manifested in the process of its activity. The main structural components of activity are goals, motives and actions. Let's consider them in more detail.
Motives are divided into two groups: external and internal. Internal motives include beliefs, aspirations, interests. One of the most important problems of upbringing remains the formation of healthy interests, primarily in learning and future professional activity. Interests are motives that contribute to orientation in any area, acquaintance with new facts, a more complete reflection of reality. That is, speaking subjectively, interest is found in the desire to learn more about the object. Thus, interests act as a constant stimulating mechanism of cognition. They force the person to actively seek ways to satisfy the thirst for knowledge that has arisen in him. At the same time, the satisfaction of interests leads to the emergence of new ones corresponding to a higher level of cognitive activity. Interests are classified by sustainability, breadth, purpose, content.
The difference of interests on the basis of goals reveals direct and indirect interests. Immediate interests are caused by the emotional attractiveness of a significant object (“I am interested in knowing, seeing, understanding,” the person says). Mediated interests arise when the real social meaning of something (for example, a doctrine) and its subjective significance for the individual coincide (“This is interesting to me, because it’s in my interests!” - says the person in this case). In work and study, not everything has a direct emotional appeal. Therefore, it is so important to form indirect interests that play a leading role in the conscious organization of the labor process.
The objects of cognitive needs and their real meaning reveal the difference in interests in terms of content. It is also important what a person is interested in, and what the social significance of this object is. Thus, one of the most important educational problems of our time is the formation of interests that stimulate the active cognitive activity of a teenager.
Another of the most important characteristics is the difference of interests in terms of the degree of sustainability. Stability of interest is the long-term preservation of its intensity. It should be noted that one of the age-related characteristics of adolescents is a certain instability of interests, which acquire the character of passionate, but short-term hobbies. But there are also positive aspects to this. In particular, it contributes to an intensive search for vocation, helps the manifestation and discovery of abilities.
The next essential aspect of motivating activity is beliefs.
Beliefs and ideals are most mobilizing. The power of persuasion lies in the fact that it is based on knowledge, ideas that have become personally significant, influencing the position of the individual. Beliefs integrate emotions will, direct and motivate human behavior. It is difficult to refuse them. With a general high activity of intellectual, emotional and volitional components, their mutual reinforcement occurs. A convinced person is distinguished by confidence, purposefulness, stability of behavior, definiteness of relations, feelings, and a supra-situational attitude.
Thus, a belief system, including philosophical, aesthetic, ethical, natural science and others, can be considered as a worldview. One of the needs of a person is the desire to protect their beliefs, to achieve their separation by other people. All these motives are united by the fact that they are all conscious, that is, a person is aware of what prompts him to activity, is the content of his needs.
However, an important role in the motivation of human actions is played by unconscious motives, in particular, the psychological attitude, i.e. willingness to act in a certain way. The essence of attitude is bias. Although the attitude operates at the level of the unconscious, it is necessary to note its conscious formation. This is a consequence of faith, not analysis, the result of an uncritical attitude towards unverified information.
Now let's move on to considering external motives. These include threat, demand, punishment, reward, praise, competition, group pressure, and so on.
Since external motives act on the child from the outside, they are often associated with the risk of resistance to their action, internal tension, conflict in relation to others. In this case, an individual approach is especially necessary: the educator must anticipate the specific reaction of each pupil to the action of these factors. So, the inept use of even encouragement, one of the most effective educational tools, may not remove difficulties, but intensify them. For example, overly frequent praise for a student often creates conceit and self-centeredness in him, while in other students it causes envy and anger. Very moderately it is necessary to encourage a student with an overestimated level of aspirations and more - with an underestimated one. A reluctant student trying to overcome his academic lag should be more favored than others for the slightest success.
Modern psychologists, in particular, A.A. Verbitsky and N.A. Bakshaeva, distinguish the following functions of motives: structuring, meaning-forming, incentive, directing, organizing, orienting, energetic, regulatory, goal-forming, cognitive, barrier and others. Thus, the motive is a stable formation of the motivational sphere in the form of an objectified need (V.A. Ivannikov), while talking about an arbitrary form of motivation, carried out in terms of consciousness.
So, knowledge of motives helps to predict behavior, with its help you can stimulate the necessary activity and, conversely, avoid unnecessary mistakes.
The next component of the activity is the goal.
Any human activity is determined by the goals, tasks that he sets for himself. If there is no goal, then there is no activity. Activity is caused by certain motives, reasons that prompted a person to set a particular goal and organize activities to achieve it. The goal is what a person acts for; motive is why a person acts.
At the same time, it should be noted that human activity is determined not by one motive and one goal, but by a whole complex, a system of goals and motives, of which one goal and one motive dominates at the moment or their struggle takes place under the influence of the situation.
A person's influence on an object always occurs in a purposeful way. A pre-conceived result of conscious activity is called a goal. The duration of its implementation depends on the degree of complexity of the goal. Therefore, it becomes necessary to forecast and plan activities. In this case, not only the final goal is formed, but also a number of intermediate goals, the achievement of which contributes to the approach to the desired result.
Speaking about goals and goal-setting, it is necessary to dwell on the level of personality claims and self-esteem. It is known that in adolescence there is a noticeable jump in the level of aspirations. The height of claims is one of the main characteristics of a person's goals. And the over-optimistic view of adolescents about their capabilities (i.e., a higher level of an ideal goal - the image of the desired result - compared to the level of real capabilities, overestimation of self-esteem), which allows setting overestimated goals, oddly enough, creates the most favorable conditions for choosing a life path , self-development and self-education. When entering a new activity, a teenager must set high goals for himself, since this is what creates the conditions for the development of his personality. Although, of course, there must be a realistic claim, which is manifested in the distinction between ideal and real goals.
Goal setting also involves self-esteem. At the same time, modern psychologists (in particular, L.V. Borozdina and L.Vidinska) have obtained data that claims, although they are associated with self-esteem, are not completely determined by it. The question of the relationship between self-esteem and the level of aspirations is of considerable interest from the point of view of psychological readiness for self-determination.
As noted above, needs are the source of personality activity. Let's consider them in more detail.
Need is the objective need of a person in certain conditions that ensure his life and development. The needs reflect the personality's dependence on the specific features of its existence. Needs are the source of personality activity. The study of the individual characteristics of the child should begin with clarification of his needs. Reliance on the normally developed needs of the child is an absolutely indispensable condition for eliminating deviations in his behavior and overcoming the difficulties of age-related development.
Thus, in psychology, the need is considered as a special mental state of the individual, reflecting the discrepancy between the internal and external conditions of activity.
Need is a state of need for something. All living beings have needs. They activate the body, direct it to search for what the body needs at the moment. The main characteristics of needs are: a) strength, b) frequency of occurrence, c) ways of satisfaction, d) the subject content of needs (i.e., the totality of those objects with the help of which this need can be satisfied).
So, needs, motives and goals are the main components of a person's motivational sphere. Moreover, each of the needs can be realized in many motives, and each motive can be satisfied with a different set of goals.
One of the main parameters characterizing the human need sphere is hierarchization, i.e. characteristic of the rank ordering of the structure. The most famous and versatile classification of needs is the classification of Abraham Maslow. He identifies the following types of needs.
1. Primary needs:
a) physiological needs that directly ensure human survival. These include the needs for drink, food, rest, shelter, and sexual needs.
b) the need for safety and security (including confidence in the future), that is, the desire, the desire to feel protected, get rid of failures and fears.
2. Secondary needs:
a) social needs, which include feelings of acceptance by the people around you, belonging to something, support, affection, social interaction.
b) the need for respect, recognition by others, including self-respect.
c) aesthetic and cognitive needs: for knowledge, beauty, etc.
d) the need for self-expression, self-actualization, that is, the desire to realize the abilities of one's own personality, to increase one's own significance in one's own eyes.
For A. Maslow's hierarchical system, there is a rule: "Each subsequent step of the motivational structure is meaningful only when all the previous steps are implemented." At the same time, according to the author, only a few reach the last stage in their development (slightly more than 1%), while the rest simply do not want it. An important role in the implementation of optimal motivation is played by the implementation of the following needs: success, recognition, optimal organization of work and learning, growth prospects.
1.2 Features of the motivational sphere of adolescents
The study of the psychology of human development is impossible without the study of his motivation, i.e. those driving forces of human behavior, which in their totality represent the core of the personality and determine the nature of its development. The adolescence period is traditionally considered one of the most critical moments in the mental development of a personality, and this is primarily determined by the ongoing profound transformations in the motivational-need-related sphere of adolescents.
Adolescence is the stage of ontogenetic development between childhood and adulthood (from 11-12 to 16-17 years), which is characterized by qualitative changes associated with puberty and entry into adulthood.
However, these transformations, which have both qualitative and quantitative characteristics, are conditioned and prepared by the entire course of the child's development from the very first days of his existence.
It is in adolescence, according to L.S. Vygotsky, that intense and profound changes in the driving forces of behavior occur over a relatively short period of time. In terms of its structure, the motivational sphere begins to be characterized not by the parallelism of motives, but by their hierarchical structure, by the presence of a certain system of subordination of various motivational tendencies. With the development of the processes of self-awareness, qualitative changes in motives are observed, a number of them are characterized by great stability, many interests take on the character of a persistent hobby. According to the mechanism of action, motives become not directly acting, but arising on the basis of a consciously set goal and a consciously accepted intention. The emergence of mediated needs makes it possible for the adolescent to consciously manage his needs and aspirations, master his inner world, and form long-term life plans and prospects.
The starting point for changing the motivational sphere of a teenager is the so-called "social situation of child development" - a unique system of relations between the child and the environment, characteristic only for a given age. These relations, on the one hand, form, and on the other, they are themselves determined by those qualitatively new psychological formations that arise at a given age stage. These new formations represent a wide range of mental phenomena - from mental processes to individual personality traits.
Thus, when analyzing the motivation of a teenager, it is necessary to take into account:
biological changes (puberty);
psychological changes (complication of forms of abstract-logical thinking, development of self-awareness, expansion of the sphere of volitional activity);
the social context of a teenager's life.
It is known that the duration and intensity of the course of adolescence largely depends on cultural and historical conditions: the transition from childhood to adulthood can be short and harsh, or it can drag on for almost a whole decade, as it happens in modern industrial society.
The need for a transition period is obvious. In fact, the main task, one might say a mega-task that a person needs to solve in adolescence, is to become an adult, both physiologically and socially. It is appropriate in this case to recall the words of L.S. Vygotsky that the most essential feature of this period is that the era of puberty is at the same time the era of social maturation of the personality.
In modern psychology, a fairly large variety of various concepts devoted to human development has already been accumulated. In some, the emphasis is on physical and puberty: for example, the main task of the transition period in Freud's psychosexual concept of development is to bring the child's sex life to the final form normal for an adult. In others, for example, within the framework of the sociogenetic approach, the main thing is a person's assimilation of social norms and roles, his acquisition of social attitudes and values. In cognitive theories, in particular, Piaget's concepts, the emphasis is placed on a person's achievement of cognitive maturity, and it is argued that entering the stage of formal operations allows a person to form a personal identity. According to E. Erickson, the main task of adolescence is the formation of a sense of personal identity and avoidance of the danger of the emergence of role uncertainty.
Identity consists of many components, the totality of which forms an integral personality.
According to E. Erickson, the individual development tasks that an individual needs to solve in order to achieve identity are the following:
gaining a sense of time and continuity of life;
development of self-confidence;
adopting a gender-appropriate role;
experimenting with different social roles;
choice of profession;
formation of a personal system of values and priorities;
the search for their ideology, what Erickson called "the search for the creed."
In many respects, the tasks of the development of adolescence, proposed by R. Havighurst in the so-called psychosocial theory of development, are similar to the ideas of E. Erickson in their content. In his opinion, the tasks of development consist in the formation of those qualities that are necessary for the individual himself or correspond to public needs. At the same time, the developmental tasks faced by individuals belonging to different cultures differ from each other, since they depend on the relative importance of the biological, psychological and cultural elements that make up the task. In addition, different cultures have different requirements for people and are provided with different opportunities, respectively, they need different skills and knowledge.
Havighurst identifies eight major developmental challenges that must be addressed during adolescence:
acceptance of your appearance and the ability to effectively control your body;
forming new and more mature relationships with peers of both sexes; motivation teen self-esteem behavior
acceptance of male and female socio-sexual roles;
achieving emotional independence from parents and other adults;
preparation for work, which could ensure economic independence;
preparation for marriage and family life;
the emergence of a desire to bear social responsibility and the development of appropriate behavior;
8) the acquisition of a system of values and ethical principles that can be guided in life, i.e. the formation of their own ideology.
Some aspects of identity are easier to form than others. As a rule, bodily and sexual identity is established first of all. Professional, ideological and moral identity is formed much more slowly: this process depends on whether the adolescent has reached the stage of formal operational thinking in his cognitive development. Religious and political views are formed somewhat later, but these components of identity can undergo changes for many years to come.
In most studies aimed at studying the characteristics of adolescence, the fact is noted that with the entry of a child into puberty, at about 12-13 years old, a breakdown occurs in his attitude to himself, an active interest in his inner world appears, the adolescent increasingly persistently turns to thoughts about self.
L.S.Vygotskaya designated this feature of adolescence as an ego-dominant, or egocentric, attitude, which consists in the fact that the emerging personality of a teenager is in the center of his attention, becomes one of the central nests of interests.
According to T.V. Dragunova, the desire to know oneself and enter the world of adults is the pivotal feature of adolescence, its affective-needful core, which determines the content and direction of the adolescent's social activity, the system of his social reactions and specific experiences. Egocentric orientation is present as a dominant in all behavioral manifestations of a teenager, in his emotions, feelings, experiences. Reactions of emancipation, negativism become the first markers of the adolescent's active search for his own unique essence, his own I. Experiments with appearance are not whims, but part of the process of finding their own image: clothes, hairstyle, incredible makeup and piercings greatly help adolescents to reveal and express their identity ...
Egocentric orientation, which in this case we consider only as an age-related feature, is manifested in such phenomena described by D. Elkind as the “imaginary audience” and “the myth of one's own exclusiveness”. The desire to find your I, to determine the boundaries of your capabilities, to confirm, so to speak, your being, often finds expression in behavior associated with risk.
Situations of physical risk, in the opinion of B.M. Masterov, better than anything else, supply the rapidly developing I of a teenager with the sensory tissue of this I: if I can die, then I am. Here is an extreme formula for self-affirmation, the affirmation of the very foundations of the existence of one's self. Risky games, the physical risk to which a teenager voluntarily exposes himself, become the price he pays for building his I. In addition to physical risk, adolescents also expose themselves to social risk. Social risk is associated with the fact that adherence to group values or their rejection in each specific case is a criterion for evaluating a teenager on the part of both adults and peers.
Social risk is the most diverse scheme of personal risks to which a teenager exposes himself in the sphere of social relations (both peers and adults). The teenager is constantly trying to prove something to others and to himself, and many interpersonal interactions among teenagers are based on the principle of "weak - not weak".
Communication and social interaction in general is another area in which adolescents' desire to find their own identity is clearly manifested. The affiliate need for belonging to a group, according to the figurative expression of I.S. Kon, turns into an invincible herd feeling for many: they cannot spend not only a day, but even an hour outside their own, and if they do not have their own, any company.
A person can know himself only in communication with others, and therefore a teenager turns primarily to his peers - it is on them that he largely relies in the search for his identity. Others for him are the essence of a mirror in which he sees his own reflection, sees how others react to his behavior, what he is accepted for, what he is rejected for. Collecting this kind of information, a teenager gradually forms an idea about himself, and in the future these ideas will be re-checked and refined many times, and again through relationships with other people. However, complete merging with the group can become an obstacle to knowing oneself. In fact, the group begins to play the role of a family, where the teenager seeks the same security, and identification with the company does not allow him to become an independent individual in all respects.
One of the most important tasks that must be solved in the transitional age is the task of achieving a certain autonomy by the adolescent, independence from parents. Being an adult means thinking independently, making decisions for yourself, learning self-regulation and self-control. These tasks cannot be solved as long as a person is completely dependent on someone, as long as he is under the vigilant control and guardianship of parents, teachers or other adults. Therefore, it is so important for a teenager that the adult world helps him gain this independence and independence, otherwise he will have to conquer them himself, and in this case conflicts are inevitable. However, the concept of independence does not mean complete alienation of a teenager from his parents or other adults who are significant to him. Instead of talking about rebellion and the painful separation of adolescents from their families, many psychologists now prefer to describe this period as a time when parents and adolescents agree on a new relationship with each other. The teenager needs to gain more independence in his life; parents must learn to look at their child as an equal person entitled to their opinion. At the same time, on the one hand, parents must provide their children with a sense of security and support, and on the other hand, they must help their children become independent, capable adults. Only by feeling protected can a person become independent. Thus, parents must learn that there is nothing dangerous about isolation and self-affirmation; it is age appropriate and plays a critical role in development.
The acquisition of autonomy in adolescence presupposes, among others, the gradual emotional emancipation of the adolescent from his parents, i.e. liberating him from those emotional relationships that formed in his early childhood. With the onset of adolescence, the emotional distance between parents and a child increases more and more, and this contributes to the further development of his independence and the formation of his identity. The desire to realize and develop their uniqueness, the awakening sense of their identity requires the adolescent to separate from the family we, which previously gave him a sense of security, and to start searching for his I. However, a lot here depends on the parents, and some of them, in fact, block the process of individualization your child. By encouraging and even cultivating a sense of dependency in their children, such parents prevent them from becoming full-fledged adults. As a result, the formation of internal autonomy becomes more difficult, a stable need for guardianship is generated, dependence as a character trait, and this delays the transition to adulthood for a long time.
However, the opposite version of emotional emancipation is also negative in its consequences - emotional rejection, in which children do not receive any emotional support from their parents at all and require more independence from them than is possible at their age. Then the teenager has a feeling of loneliness, anxiety, abandonment, the feeling that no one cares about him, including his parents. Accordingly, all this can contribute to the formation of a wide variety of behavioral disorders.
However, it should be noted that emotional emancipation does not mean the complete destruction of those emotional ties that existed between the child and his parents. It is more correct to say that their relationship should move to a qualitatively new level, built on mutual understanding, respect, trust and love.
An important condition for a person to reach maturity and self-determination is the formation of his intellectual independence. First of all, being an adult means thinking independently, making decisions on your own. The dramatic changes taking place in the intellectual sphere in children already at the beginning of the transitional age lead to the fact that adolescents are able to more critically perceive what adults say and do. If younger children take for granted the reasoning and explanations given by the older ones, then adolescents are able to follow the thoughts of adults, noticing the violation of logic, the lack of their argumentation. This often becomes the cause of conflicts between adolescents and adults: it is not easy for the latter to accept the changes that have occurred with flexible children, especially when adults regard their objections only as an attack on their authority.
Intellectual independence also presupposes the ability to think, critically checking the statements proclaimed by someone, to recognize the various influences emanating from parents, from various social groups, parties, confessions, and the ability to filter them without taking everything for granted. This often leads to the fact that adolescents begin to reassess the rules, values and traditions that are declared by parents, teachers and society as a whole.
Personality maturity presupposes, in addition to the conditions described above, the ability for self-regulation, self-control, and this is impossible without the growing person gaining relative independence from the control and guardianship of parents, teachers and other adults. The desire for independence and self-reliance is manifested in the most diverse areas of life of adolescents - from the choice of clothing style, circle of friends, ways of spending time to choosing a profession. It is the desire for behavioral independence that meets the strongest resistance from adults. Most adolescents have hour after hour to reclaim bedtime, step by step - the right to spend their free time at their discretion, communicate with those with whom they want to, use makeup and dress as is considered fashionable in their group. In their quest to free themselves from the control of adults, adolescents often violate the limits of rationality, but in many respects this is the result of the wrong approach in the upbringing of the parents themselves.
According to the well-known researcher of motivation A. Maslow, every person constantly needs recognition, a stable and, as a rule, a high assessment of his own merits, each of us needs both the respect of the people around us, and the opportunity to respect ourselves.
Satisfaction of the need for assessment and respect gives rise to an individual's sense of self-confidence, a sense of his own worth, strength, adequacy, a feeling that he is useful and necessary in this world.
Unsatisfied need, on the contrary, causes him feelings of humiliation, weakness, helplessness, which, in turn, serve as a ground for despondency, trigger compensatory and neurotic mechanisms. Studies have shown that a low level of self-esteem contributes to the emergence of aggressive behavior: the need to protect oneself can become dominant over other motives, and the behavior of other people will be interpreted by a person as threatening, which ultimately pushes him to take preventive action. The stage at which the need for respect and self-esteem begins to manifest itself most intensely is adolescence.
The developing sense of adolescence in adolescents increasingly demands an adult attitude from the social world. The teenager is not satisfied with the system of relationships that developed in childhood, he wants to reach a completely different level of communication with parents, teachers, other adults - the horizontal level "adult - adult".
Chapter 2. Formation of motivation for behavior of adolescents
2.1 Self-esteem of adolescents as a toolformation of positive motivation
Self-esteem manifests itself in the conscious judgments of the individual, in which he tries to formulate his significance. It is hidden or explicitly present in any self-description. Any attempt to characterize oneself contains an evaluative element determined by generally accepted norms, criteria, and goals, ideas about the levels of achievement, moral principles, and rules of behavior.
Research on changes in the adolescent's internal attitudes has shown that the more trust the source of information has, the more influence it can have on the student's self-perception. This is one of the reasons for the especially important role of teachers in the formation of students' self-esteem. The adolescent's ideas about himself are formed on the basis of those assessments and reactions to the results of his studies that he receives from teachers and parents. The more constant this flow of value judgments directed at the adolescent, the more definite the effect they have on him and the easier it is to predict the level of his academic performance. Value judgments are the least effective in the group of “average” students, since negative and positive reactions balance each other. It is important to note that people with high self-esteem in most cases perceive and value their experiences in a way that helps them maintain a positive self-image. Conversely, people with low self-esteem react to this or that failure in such a way that it makes it difficult to improve the self-concept.
It is often naively believed that one can easily raise low self-esteem by creating positive reinforcements for the adolescent. However, there is no guarantee that a teenager will take the praise exactly as expected. His interpretation of such actions may be unexpectedly negative. It does not matter how positive this action will look in the eyes of other students, how much the teacher himself will put sincere good intentions into it, the teenager can react negatively in any case. This is why it is so important that a child has a positive self-image from early childhood.
In foreign psychology, the most famous technique aimed at changing the self-concept is the human-centered psychology of K. Rogers. K. Rogers identified the conditions necessary for personal change:
1. Empathy - the therapist's focus on a positive perception of the patient's inner world. Empathy gives the adolescent a sense that he is not alone, that he is understood and accepted for who he is.
2. An unconditional positive attitude is the fundamental belief that a person has the potential to understand and change himself in a positive direction. A teenager who is convinced that he is doing well is not inclined to underestimate his potential and is willing to learn with pleasure. This is the most important condition for the development of a positive self-concept in a teenager. However, acceptance also implies an awareness of difficulties and an understanding of the limitations of one's capabilities.
The development of higher self-esteem occurs through two mechanisms:
1. A teenager is not afraid to be rejected if he shows or discusses his vulnerable sides.
2. He is confident that he is well received regardless of his successes and failures, that he will not be equated with others, causing a painful feeling of inadequacy.
Ultimately, the main goal of developing the self-concept is to help the adolescent become a source of support, motivation and encouragement for himself.
The student's self-esteem largely depends on the grades given in the journal. However, verbal judgments can play a dominant role in the formation of the student's self-esteem, since they are more labile, emotionally colored, and intelligible. The overwhelming majority of teachers believe that students always agree with their assessments, so teachers rarely analyze them. Meanwhile, by providing the student with the opportunity to defend his opinion and tactfully directing the adolescent's reasoning, the teacher thereby helps him in the formation of self-esteem. The grade given in the journal should take into account not only the final result, but also the student's contribution to its achievement. The assessment provided by the teacher will stimulate the student and maintain his adequate self-esteem. Criticism of the teacher should relate to individual actions or deeds of the student, and not to his personality as a whole. Then the lowest mark will not be perceived by the adolescent as an infringement on his personality.
N.A. Menchinskaya, in order to prevent a fall in self-esteem in adolescents, considers it expedient to entrust poorly performing teachers with the role of teachers in relation to younger children. Then the student has a need to fill the gaps in his own knowledge, and success in this activity contributes to the normalization of the adolescent's self-esteem.
L.P. Grimak, for the formation of self-confidence in a teenager, proposes to develop in him the internal attitudes corresponding to his capabilities and aspirations adequate to them. The mechanism of this development is a sober analysis of their achievements and failures. Success cannot be attributed to mere chance - one must find out the origins of these successes. The reasons for failure should also be investigated and taken into account later.
To form a positive self-esteem of students, teachers need to take into account the following:
1. Take good care of female pride and male dignity.
2. To be able to see behind external actions and actions the motives of behavior, attitudes, activities.
3. To remember that all people feel the need to approve of their deeds and actions, and to satisfy them within reasonable limits.
4. To exclude situations in educational activity that can cause fear in adolescents, for example: "I will expel you from the technical school."
5. Learn to educate through joy, trust, respect.
6. Treat a student of any age as a subject of joint activities.
7. To create an atmosphere of success, emotional well-being, values of culture, knowledge and health.
8.Critically treat yourself when looking for reasons for student failures in learning, behavior, relationships.
9. To abandon the rules often, with pressure to emphasize the abilities of some, the failures of others.
10. To refuse direct opposition of adolescents to each other.
11. Do not "nag" and do not scold in front of the whole class.
12. Notice even small successes of the "weak", but do not emphasize it abruptly as something unexpected.
13. Call all adolescents by their first names and achieve this in the adolescents' communication with each other (when a person hears his own name, the internal organs are healed).
14. Constantly emphasize that classroom relationships should be determined not only by academic performance, but also by those good deeds that a person has done for others. The ability to learn is just one of the many valuable personality traits that everyone develops in different ways.
Thus, the formation of self-esteem allows the student to believe in himself and in his strength, learn to set goals for himself and form the trajectory of their achievement. Positive self-esteem allows students to learn to defend their opinions, learn how to work in a team, and reckon with the opinions of others. Positive self-esteem leads to success in business, allows you to cope with difficulties and respond flexibly to changes in the decision-making environment.
2.2 Methods, means and techniques for the formation of motivation of behavior of adolescents in the context of a comprehensive school
The upbringing methodology is considered as a set of methods for organizing the upbringing process and as a branch of pedagogical knowledge, in which methods of expediently organizing the upbringing process are studied and created. Part of this methodology is the methodology of social education - this is both the theory and practice of social education.
In general terms, the technique in its most general form is a set of methods, techniques and means of expediently conducting, for example, social and pedagogical work with adolescent children of the formation of behavior motivation. The main, determining element, the factor of activity is the method. The method (from the Greek - the way of research, theory, study) is the way to achieve a given goal. These are ways of influencing consciousness, will, feelings, behavior of a person. As a way of practical transformation of reality, the method is a set of certain, relatively homogeneous techniques, operations used in practice to solve a specific problem of its purposeful change.
In addition to the method for the formation of the motivation of the behavior of adolescent children in school conditions, the concepts of "method" and "means" are widely used. The technique is understood as a particular expression of the method, its concretization, is in relation to the method of a particular, subordinate character. In fact, each method is implemented through a set of individual techniques that are accumulated in practice, generalized by theory and recommended for their use by all specialists. Means are a combination of material, emotional, intellectual and other conditions that are used by the teacher to achieve the goal. Means in and of themselves, in their essence, are not modes of activity, but become them only when they are used to achieve some goal.
Let's consider the most common methods used in the formation of adolescent behavior motivation.
1. Persuasion and Exercise. These methods are used with adolescents who, for whatever reason, have not formed distorted concepts about these norms and the corresponding forms of behavior. The persuasion method promotes the transformation of accepted norms in society into the motives of a person's activity and behavior, which contributes to the formation of beliefs. A persuasion is an explanation and proof of the correctness or necessity of a certain behavior. Exercise is essential for developing moral behavior in the developing adolescent. The exercise method is associated with the formation of certain moral skills and habits in a teenager. Developing habits requires repeated actions (exercises) and repeated repetitions.
2. A story and a lecture are monologic forms of the method, which are conducted from one person - a teacher or educator. Both methods are used to explain certain moral concepts to adolescents. The story is used in work with younger adolescents, it is short in time, based on vivid, colorful examples and facts. In a lecture, as a rule, more complex moral concepts are revealed (humanism, patriotism, duty, good, evil, friendship, comradeship, etc.). The lecture applies to older adolescent children. The lecture is longer in time, it uses the story as a device.
3. Conversation and dispute are dialogical forms of the method, when using them, the work of the person himself plays an important role. Therefore, an important role in the use of these methods is played by: the choice and relevance of the topic under discussion, reliance on the positive experience of adolescents, a positive emotional background of the conversation. Conversation is a question-and-answer method. The effectiveness of the conversation will depend on the teacher's ability to ask the necessary questions, what examples he uses and how reasonably he gives them.
4. Methods of correction, which include reward and punishment. In pedagogical practice, the attitude towards these methods is ambiguous. For example, A.S. Makarenko argued that it is necessary to punish, it is not only the right, but also the duty of the teacher V.A. Sukhomlinsky believed that it is possible to educate at school without punishment. A.S. Makarenko wrote that remarks cannot be made in a calm, even voice, the pupil must feel the teacher's indignation. V.A. Sukhomlinsky was convinced that the teacher's word should, first of all, reassure the teenager. The whole history of socio-pedagogical thought testifies to the fact that methods of correction (encouragement and punishment) are the most complex ways of influencing the personality of a teenager.
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Annotation. The article is devoted to the study of the problem of educational motivation of junior schoolchildren; shows the dynamics, characteristics and practical formation of educational motivation of junior schoolchildren; the results of the study of the level of educational motivation of primary schoolchildren are presented.
Keywords: motivation, educational motivation, younger students, motive.
The relevance of the study of educational motivation is due to the updating of the content of education, the formulation of the tasks of forming in younger schoolchildren the methods of independent acquisition of knowledge and the development of an active life position. Since the most acute problems in the field of education and upbringing are associated with the lack of motives for getting an education among many schoolchildren, which results in a decrease in the basic indicators of education and upbringing of graduates of all educational institutions, the importance of this criterion is obvious.
Revealing the peculiarities of educational motivation of junior schoolchildren plays an important role in determining the teacher's measures of pedagogical influence. The need to study the educational motivation of younger schoolchildren is also determined by the fact that it is during the period of a child's education in primary school, when educational activity is in the status of a leading activity, that it is important to create the prerequisites for the formation of motivation for learning. And by the end of primary school, to give motivation a certain form, that is, to make it a stable personal education of the student.
The term "Motivation", taken in a broad sense, is used in all areas of psychology that investigate the causes and mechanisms of purposeful human behavior. Motivation is a complex process of motivating a person to certain behavior and activities under the influence of intrapersonal and external factors. Motivation is the result of a multi-stage interaction of the child's inner world - first of all, his needs and stimuli capable of satisfying these needs, as well as the situation in which the perception of the stimulus is carried out and activity appears aimed at receiving it.
According to V.G. Aseev, motivation is a combination, a system of psychologically heterogeneous factors that determine human behavior and activity.
Bozhovich L.I. believes that motivation is an individualized mechanism for correlating external and internal factors that determines the ways of behavior of a given individual.
Learning motivation is defined as a particular type of motivation included in learning activities, learning activities. Like any other type, learning motivation is determined by a number of factors specific to this activity. First, it is determined by the educational system itself, by the educational institution where educational activities are carried out. Secondly, the organization of the educational process. Thirdly, - the subjective characteristics of the student (age, gender, intellectual development, abilities, level of aspirations, self-esteem, his interaction with other students, and so on.). Fourthly, by the subjective characteristics of the teacher and, above all, by the system of his relations to the student, to the work; fifth, the specifics of the subject.
Among the various social motives for learning, perhaps the most important is the motive for getting high marks. High marks for a little student are a source of other rewards, a guarantee of his emotional well-being, a source of pride.
The development of educational motivation depends on the assessment; it is on this basis that in some cases difficult experiences and school maladjustment arise. School assessment also directly affects the development of self-esteem. Children, being guided by the teacher's assessment, consider themselves and their peers to be excellent students, "poor" and "C", good and average students, endowing representatives of each group with a set of appropriate qualities. Assessment of academic performance at the beginning of schooling is essentially an assessment of the individual as a whole and determines the social status of the child.
At this age, a significant achievement in the development of the child's personality is the predominance of the motive “I must” over the motive “I want”. Younger school age promises the child new achievements in a new area of human activity - learning. In elementary school, a child learns special psychophysical and mental actions that must serve writing, arithmetic operations, reading, physical education, drawing, manual labor and other types of educational activities. In new relationships with adults and with peers, the child continues to develop reflection on himself and others. In educational activity, claiming recognition, the child exercises his will to achieve educational goals. In achieving success or failing, he falls into the trap of concomitant negative formations (a sense of superiority over others or envy). The developing ability to identify with others helps to relieve the pressure of negative formations and develop into accepted positive forms of communication.
Each student has his own characteristics, including in the motivational sphere. Ideally, the ways of formation of motives for learning should be determined taking into account the initial level of educational motivation of each student and his individual characteristics. Correctional work is the activity of a teacher aimed at eliminating the cause that led to a low level of motivation. If it is an inability to learn, then the correction should begin by identifying the weak links. Since these skills include both general and specific knowledge and skills, it is necessary to check both. To eliminate weak links, it is necessary to carry out their stage-by-stage development. At the same time, training should be individual, with the inclusion of the teacher in the process of performing actions, tasks with an entertaining plot. In the process of work, the teacher must celebrate the success of the student, show his progress. This must be done very carefully.
Often, on the very first day of being at school, a student learns that now he cannot behave the way he used to: he cannot get up when he wants to; you cannot turn to the student sitting in the back; you cannot ask when you want to do this, etc. In such cases, the student gradually develops fear of the school, fear of the teacher. Learning activity does not bring joy. This is a signal of trouble. Even an adult cannot work for a long time in such conditions. If this is the case, then is it any wonder that already in elementary school some children develop neuroses.
In this regard, it is worth remembering V.F. Shatalov. His main merit, in our opinion, is not in the notes and support points, but in the fact that he removed the fear of school from children, made it a place of children's joy. And the school should definitely bring joy to the child. This requires not only a humane attitude towards children, but also concern for the success of educational activities. At one time L. Feuerbach wrote that what the heart is open for cannot be a secret for the mind either. The task of the teacher, first of all, is to "open the child's heart", to awaken in him the desire to assimilate new material, to learn how to work with it.
The presented collective research took place in a group of junior grade 3 schoolchildren of school No. 67 in the Central District of Chelyabinsk using previously developed technologies published in the works of V.I. Dolgova, Yu.A. Rokitskaya, N.A. Merkulova, N.I. Arkaeva, Kapitanets E.G. ...
According to our data, pupils during educational activities are characterized by motives of achievement, cognition, as well as the need for communication.
Children are interested in participating in the learning process, discussing the proposed topics, as well as applying new knowledge. They have a sense of rivalry, struggle, both individual and group in nature.
Students of the 3rd "B" grade were tested according to the first methodology "Diagnostics of school motivation of primary school students" The results of the study are presented in table 1.
Table 1.
Diagnostics of school motivation of primary school students
Analysis of the results showed us that only 5 (18%) students have scores from 25 to 30, which indicates their high school motivation and learning activity. Further, 4 students (15%) have results from 20-24 points, which shows good or normal school motivation. The next 8 (30%) students show scores from 15-19, that is, they have a predominantly positive attitude towards school, but the school attracts more outside of the curriculum. Low school motivation in 6 (22%) students who scored 10-14 points. And 4 (15%) pupils showed a negative attitude towards school or maladjustment, they scored below 10 points.
Based on these indicators, we can conclude that primary school students are dominated by good school motivation, interest in learning activities, which is an indicator of their high and productive learning ability.
Further, the students of the 3rd grade were tested according to the methodology "Diagnostics of the structure of the student's educational motivation" and "The predominance of the student's motives." The results are shown in Tables 2 and 3, respectively.
table 2
Diagnostics of the structure of the student's educational motivation
|
Cognitive |
Communicative |
Emotional |
||||
Table 3
The predominance of student motives
|
Self-development |
Student position |
Achievements |
||||||
According to the results, we can say that the motive "Schoolchildren's position" prevails among younger students (17%), that is, students perceive their learning as a duty, but at the same time the social aspects of the school lifestyle are preserved. They are followed by the motives for achieving success (15%), which characterize the student as a person striving for success in various activities, capable of competition, who wants to prove to others that he is capable of much. Further, there are external motives (15%) of the student, which include rewarding an adult for success, punishment for unfulfilled work, and forcing adults to take action. The same percentage of self-development (15%), the desire to realize their abilities and the desire to feel their competence, the development of their qualities and characteristics.
Cognitive motives (13%) are associated with the content of educational activity and the process of its implementation, consisting in the orientation of schoolchildren to assimilate new knowledge. Schoolchildren have a pronounced interest in new knowledge and new information, enjoy the process itself. The following communicative motives (13%) - the child shows interest in those activities in which there is an opportunity to communicate with peers. The last place among the motives of educational activity is occupied by emotional motives (12%). The desire for psychological comfort and vivid experiences are not the main ones for schoolchildren. It is more important for them to master new knowledge and show the adult how to succeed in order to gain praise.
- Formation of interest in the teaching of schoolchildren / Ed. A.K. Markova. - M., 2012 .-- p. 140
- Aseev V.G. Motivation of behavior and personality formation. - M., 2010 .-- 159 p.
- Bozhovich L.I. Study of the behavior motivation of children and adolescents / Edited by L.I. Bozhovich. and L.V. Trustworthy. - M., 2010 .-- 256s.
- Anufriev, A. F., Kostromina, S. N. How to overcome difficulties in teaching children. [Text] / A.F. Anufriev, S.N. Kostromitina - M., 2009 .-- 234 p ..
- Babaeva E.S. Studying the peculiarities of the motivation of the teaching of modern schoolchildren // Bulletin of RUDN. - Series: Psychology and Pedagogy, 2011. - 210p.
- Bushueva L.A. Ways of forming motivation for learning in younger schoolchildren [Electronic resource] URL: http://nsportal.ru (date of access 15.01.15).
- Developmental and educational psychology: textbook / ed. Gameso. - M .: Nauka, 2010 .-- 360p.
- Grigorieva M.V. The structure of the motives of the teaching of primary schoolchildren and its role in the process of school adaptation // Primary school, 2011. - 156p.
- Dyuzheva O.A. Pedagogical conditions for the formation of educational motivation of schoolchildren [Electronic resource] URL: http://www.dissercat.com (date of treatment 02/29/15)
- Podlasy I.P. Primary school pedagogy: textbook for students ped. uch-uch and colleges studying in the group of specialties "Education" / IP Podlasy. - M .: Humanities. ed. center VLADOS, 2009 .-- 463 p.
- Dolgova V.I. Subjects and objects of education in the projection of value and life-meaning orientations // In the collection: SUBJECT AND OBJECT OF COGNITION IN A PROJECTION OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNIQUES AND PSYCHOLOGICAL CONCEPTS LXXXII International Research and Practice Conference and II stage of the Championship in Psychology and Educational sciences (London, June 05 - June 10, 2014). Chief editor - Pavlov V.V .. - London, 2014. - S. 62-65.
- Dolgova V.I., Rokitskaya Yu.A., Merkulova N.A. Parents' readiness to raise children in a foster family. - M .: Publishing house Pero, 2015 .-- 180 p.
- Dolgova V.I., Arkaeva N.I., Kapitanets E.G. Innovative psychological and pedagogical technologies in primary school / monograph. - M .: Publishing house Pero, 2015 .-- 200 p.
- Dolgova V.I., Kapitanets E.G. Correction and development of attention of primary schoolchildren with intellectual disabilities - Chelyabinsk: ATOKSO, 2010 - 117p.
RESEARCH INSTITUTE
GENERAL AND PEDAGOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY
ACADEMY OF PEDAGOGICAL SCIENCES OF THE USSR
STUDY OF
BEHAVIOR MOTIVATIONS
CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS
Edited by
L. I. BOZHOVICH and L. V. BLAGONADEZHINA
Publishing house "Pedagogika"
Moscow 1972
2
371.015
I-395
| I-395 | Studying the motivation of behavior in children and adolescents. Ed. L. I. Bozhovich and L. V. Blagonadezhina. M., "Pedagogy", 1972. 352 pp. (Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the USSR) The collection is devoted to experimental studies of the motivational sphere of children and adolescents. It examines the problems of the development of needs and motives in ontogenesis, their place and role in the formation of the child's personality. One of the articles presents the results of a study of juvenile delinquents. It is based on factual material and highlighted various groups of offenders that require special paths of pedagogical influence. |
6-3
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25-73
FOREWORD
At the 24th Congress of the CPSU, the idea was emphasized that “a great cause — the building of communism — cannot be moved forward without the all-round development of man himself. Communism is impossible without a high level of culture, education, social consciousness, and the inner maturity of people, just as it is impossible without an appropriate material and technical base. " 1 .
One of the main psychological problems, without the study of which the tasks of education set by the congress cannot be solved, is the problem of the formation of human needs and motives, since they are the most important factors that determine human behavior, stimulate him to be active.
The concepts of need and motive have not yet received an unambiguous disclosure and generally accepted definition in psychology. In this collection, these concepts are used in the following meanings. A need is understood as a person's need for something necessary for the life of his organism or for him as a person. The need directly prompts a person to search for the object of its satisfaction, and the very process of this search is colored with positive emotions.
Motives, like needs, are related to the inducers of human behavior. However, they can induce a person and indirectly, through a consciously set goal or decision. In these cases, a person may lack an immediate desire to act in accordance with the set goal, he may even force himself to act contrary to his immediate desire.
Human behavior is prompted by various needs and motives that are in a certain relationship to each other. The totality of needs and motives that consistently characterizes a given person forms his motivational sphere. The structure of the motivational sphere of a person who has reached a high level of personality formation presupposes that he has stable dominant moral motives, which, subordinating to themselves all other needs and motives, acquire a leading value in his life.
From this it follows that it is essential for upbringing what particular motives will become the leading ones for a person. It is they who determine the orientation of a person's personality, the presence or absence of social activity in him, in a word, everything that characterizes the integral appearance of a person with his specific historical characteristics.
The formation of needs and motives does not occur spontaneously. This formation must be controlled, and for this it is necessary to know
The laws of the development of needs and the conditions for the transition of primitive needs into higher forms of behavior motivation.
The studies published in this collection are aimed at studying this very problem. They consider the actual psychological side of this problem, which is different from what is the subject of study in sociological and socio-psychological research. In sociological research, the subject of study is the needs of society in their dependence on economic factors and various social conditions inherent in a given social system. Socio-psychological work is aimed at identifying and studying the set of needs that is characteristic of people belonging to different social groups.
Our research focuses on the problem of development of needs in ontogenesis, their place and role in the formation of a child's personality and their function in his behavior and activities. It should be noted that the study of these problems was hampered by the insufficient development of research methods and the complexity of the subject of study itself. In the process of studying these problems, an attempt was made to use mainly experimental methods, which required (at least at the first stages of research) a refusal to study needs and motives in all their vital completeness and concreteness. To apply the experiment, we had to simulate the processes under study, formalizing them if necessary and thereby somewhat impoverishing their substantive characteristics, while preserving its essence. In this way, we tried to ensure the receipt of sufficiently objective and comparable facts, at least in relation to those aspects of the problem that at this stage of the study were available for their relatively accurate study.
The collection opens with an article by L. I. Bozhovich, which examines some theoretical issues of the development of the incentive forces of human behavior: needs, motives, intentions, aspirations, etc. In his analysis, the author relies on both literary materials and actual data obtained in experimental laboratory research.
The article indicates the reasons for the lag in psychological research in this area, which the author attributes not only to methodological, but also due to theoretical difficulties. The main theoretical difficulty lies in the fact that the psychological problem of the transition from primitive organic needs to higher, specifically human stimuli of behavior has often been solved incorrectly. Proceeding from this, L. I. Bozhovich makes the main subject of his consideration the problem of the development of primary needs and their transition into qualitatively new forms specific to a person. In other words, the central issue of the article is the question of, as a result of what conditions and what psychological processes representations, feelings, ideas acquire an incentive force, that is, they become motives of human behavior.
The experimental study described in the article by L. S. Slavina is related to the development of the same problem. It provides data that make it possible to understand some of the essential conditions under which the consciously set goals and the intentions adopted by the child acquire an incentive. One of these
The conditions revealed in the studies are that the goal motivates the child's behavior if it serves to overcome the conflict of two oppositely directed motivational tendencies, one way or another satisfying both conflicting needs. For example, when a child performs an uninteresting and rather difficult activity for him, he has a desire to stop it; at the same time, this activity has a certain social meaning for him, and therefore the need to fulfill his social duty prevents him from stopping this activity. In such cases, the emergence of an intention to perform a certain amount of work resolves the specified conflict. The study showed that the ability to set goals and form intentions occurs only at a certain stage of the child's mental development. Initially, a child can only create an intention to perform an unwanted activity with the help of an adult. Adult support creates additional motivation to overcome the immediate desire to quit work. The study of the psychological characteristics of intention in younger schoolchildren revealed that, forming an intention, they only gradually become able to take into account their capabilities and the difficulties of future activities, therefore, very often the intention at this age is not fulfilled.
The data of this study are of undoubted pedagogical significance, since they indicate the ways of controlling the behavior and activities of children through the organization of their motivational sphere. They point to the need to educate children themselves to manage their own behavior.
The article by EI Savonko presents experimental data on the study of the comparative value of a child's self-esteem and his assessment by other people as the motives of his behavior and activities. This study shows the change in motivation during the transition from primary school age to adolescence. In adolescents, self-esteem acquires a dominant importance as a motive for behavior, although the assessment from other people, which was prevalent in early school age, continues to have an impact at this age. The adolescent's orientation towards self-esteem (with its correct upbringing) plays an essential role in the formation of personality stability, that is, a personality capable of withstanding random situational influences.
The collection contains articles related to the study of the structure of the motivational sphere of adolescents. A certain subordination of motives is a necessary condition for the emergence of purposeful behavior. Of the simultaneously acting motives, any one (or a group of homogeneous motives) should stand out, occupying a dominant position in a given situation. It is he who determines the nature and direction of behavior in a given situation. From the situational orientation of behavior, one should distinguish the orientation of the individual, which is expressed in the constancy of her behavior, her attitude to the environment and to herself. The orientation of the personality is a consequence of the appearance in a person in the process of his ontogenetic development of sufficiently stable dominant motives that determine the hierarchical structure of the motivational sphere characteristic of a given person.
In the studies of M. S. Neimark, the orientation of the personality thus understood has become the subject of special study. For studying
For this problem, an experimental technique was developed that makes it possible to differentiate children from the point of view of the presence or absence of a stable personality orientation and the nature of this orientation.
In a joint article by M.S. Neimark and V.E. Chudnovsky, the data obtained with different versions of this technique are compared. The results showed the suitability of both of its variants as a tool for studying personality orientation.
In studies using this experimental technique, it turned out that already in adolescence, a stable orientation of the personality arises. In one of Neimark's articles published in the collection, the data of experimental detection of orientation correlate with the general characteristics of the studied children. A great correspondence has been established between the orientation of the personality and some of its other features. Another article by the same author specifically examines the relationship between the orientation of adolescents and the presence in them of the so-called affect of inadequacy. The study showed that this affect is associated with the egoistic orientation of the personality and is absent in other types of personality. This conclusion is also important from a pedagogical point of view, since the affect of inadequacy during its long-term existence leads to the emergence of negative forms of behavior and negative personality traits.
The article by G. G. Bochkareva is the result of studying the characteristics of the motivational sphere of adolescent offenders. It is based on a large amount of factual material collected and analyzed by the author. A comparison was also made of the data relating to juvenile offenders with the corresponding data characterizing ordinary schoolchildren.
The most valuable in this work, we think, is the allocation of GG Bochkareva of various groups of juvenile offenders in accordance with the peculiarities of the structure of their motivational sphere. These features lie in the relationship, typical for each group, between the asocial needs of adolescents and those moral tendencies that can oppose them. Adolescents belonging to different groups are characterized, first of all, by different attitudes towards their crime, as well as by some of their personality traits.
The identification of these groups of adolescent offenders provides a basis for a different forecast regarding their re-education, and each of the groups requires appropriate ways of pedagogical influence.
Summing up the results of a brief analysis of the articles contained in the collection, we can conclude that the experimental methods used in them made it possible to accumulate a system of scientific facts and establish some specific psychological laws. Analysis and generalization of the results of these studies lead to the solution of the problem of the ways of the emergence of higher, so-called "spiritual needs" of a person and the motivating role of consciousness. At the same time, these studies have not yet fully revealed the content side of the motivation, behavior and activities of children.
L. Bozovic
L. Blagonadezhina
Footnotes to p.3
1 "Materials of the XXIV Congress of the CPSU". M., Politizdat, 1971, p. 83.
^ L. I. BOZHOVICH
DEVELOPMENT PROBLEM
MOTIVATIVE SPHERE OF THE CHILD
The motivational sphere of a person is still very little studied in psychology. This cannot be explained by a lack of interest in this subject: from ancient times to the present day, the question of the internal stimuli of human behavior has steadily occupied scientists and philosophers and led them to the construction of various speculative hypotheses. The lack of specific psychological research in this area should find its explanation in the theoretical ambiguities associated with this problem.
First of all, it should be noted that studies of needs and motives could not develop within the framework of associative empirical psychology. This psychology was dominated by the idea that all mental processes are governed by certain laws of association. With such a mechanistic understanding of the driving forces of mental life and human behavior, the problem of the activity of the subject himself was essentially removed.
As is known, the dominance of associative empirical psychology lasted a very long time; even now, its influence cannot be considered completely overcome. The criticism of empirical psychology, which began at the turn of the 20th century, proceeded mainly along the line of overcoming its idealism and atomism, but not its mechanism. Gestalt psychology has chosen for its research mainly the field of cognitive processes. Reflexology, reactology, behaviorism focused on external stimuli of human behavior.
The first who tried to overcome, albeit from an idealistic standpoint, the mechanism of associative psychology and pose the problem of the activity of the human "I", were the psychologists of the Würzburg school (N. Akh, O. Kulpe and others).
In their studies of thinking, they, using an introspective method, but nevertheless experimentally showed that representations and concepts are connected between
They are themselves in a single act of thinking not according to the mechanical laws of associations, but are governed by the task at which thinking is directed. As a result of the experiments, they came to the conclusion that the flow of representations during the act of thinking may not depend on external stimuli and on associative influences, if the thinking process is controlled by the so-called "determinative tendencies". The latter are determined by the intentions of the subject or the tasks facing him. Experimental studies by psychologists of the Würzburg School have shown that the role of determining tendencies cannot be explained by the laws of associations. Moreover, the presence of a determining tendency can even overcome the usual course of the associative process. To explain the facts obtained in experiments, Külpe introduces the concept of "I", arguing that the activity of this "I" comes to the fore in the thinking process, and the mechanisms established in associative psychology by which ideas and concepts are supposedly always connected are relegated to second plan .
Subsequently, an attempt to overcome the mechanistic understanding of the psychological sources of human activity was made in the experimental studies of K. Levin and his students.
As you know, Kurt Lewin conducted his experimental research from the standpoint of the so-called structural theory (gestalt psychology), the methodological inconsistency of which was repeatedly noted by Soviet psychologists.
The main drawback of the general concept of K. Levin is ignoring the content side of mental processes and a formal approach to their analysis. Nevertheless, Levin and his students found successful experimental methods for studying a person's needs, his intentions, his will, and some interesting psychological facts and specific patterns were established. Therefore, in our research (in particular, in the research of L. S. Slavina and E. I. Savonko) we sometimes rely on the facts obtained in the school of Levin, we use some of the concepts put forward by him, giving them our theoretical foundation. In a theoretical introduction to his main work in this
Areas ("Intentions, Will and Need") Lewin opposes his approach to the approach of associative psychology, believing that traditional psychology, by its very nature, could not find access to the problem of needs and affects, that is, those experiences that are always associated with need states subject. Meanwhile, it is precisely these processes, in his opinion, that constitute the "central layer of the psychic."
The research of K. Levin and his school is very interesting. We can assume that it was they who laid the foundation for the study of human needs in psychology. However, Levin's desire to limit his research only to those needs that were created artificially, within the framework of a laboratory experiment, led to the fact that he was able to study only their dynamic side, since the artificially created needs were deprived of true meaning for the subjects. This, in turn, prevented Levin from taking a decisive step in the development of this area.
The lag in the study of the motivational sphere of man, it seems to us, is also explained by the following: attaching great importance to the fact that in the process of historical development, instincts and needs (which are the engines of animal behavior) were replaced by consciousness (reason, intellect), which became the main regulator of human activity, many psychologists have abandoned the study of human needs and instincts. They became the subject of predominantly zoopsychological research, and studies of human psychology focused primarily on cognitive processes - perception, memory, thinking and partly (to a much lesser extent) on the volitional sphere, i.e., again, on the conscious management of a person's behavior. This, incidentally, did not prevent many psychologists, especially abroad, from theorizing about human instincts, referring to them socially acquired needs and aspirations. Typical in this respect are the works of McDaugall, Tolmen, and others.
Thus, instead of making the development of the needs themselves and their transition to a new quality the subject of study, which would make it possible to understand the psychological mechanisms of the emergence of the activity of consciousness itself,
Needs were attributed to the category of psychophysiological phenomena associated only with the needs of the body, and, in essence, threw them out of the research of human psychology. True, it is often said about the "higher spiritual needs" of a person, and about his interests, but only the latter were subjected to experimental study, and even then to a very limited extent.
NF Dobrynin's attitude to this problem is characteristic of the state of the issue under consideration. He believes that needs in general should not be the subject of psychological research, since organic needs are the subject of physiology, and spiritual needs are the subject of social sciences. However, the problem of needs and their connection with human consciousness - moral motives, conscious goals and intentions - constantly occupied some Soviet psychologists. And this is understandable. Young Soviet psychology relied entirely on the Marxist approach to understanding the personality, and in the Marxist doctrine of personality and its formation, needs are considered as the most important driving forces of development of both society and the individual.
Back in 1921, A. R. Luria, in the preface to the book he translated by the famous German economist and sociologist L. Brentano, wrote: influencing large social phenomena and historical events - this issue is beginning to attract widespread attention. " And further he argues that without studying this cardinal issue "psychologists will continue to diligently study individual aspects and elements of mental life, without embracing it as a whole and giving up before the tasks of studying the content of the individual psyche, human behavior and his motives ..."
But for a long time the interest in this problem was predominantly theoretical. In 1956, a theoretical discussion on the role of needs in human behavior and their relationship to other stimuli of human activity unfolded on the pages of the journal Voprosy psikhologii.
The first to speak was A.V. Vedenov, who emphasized
The significance of the problem under discussion, since this or that solution determines the philosophical position (idealistic or materialistic) of the author. He sharply criticized psychologists who associate the problem of the activity of human consciousness with the problem of needs, and expressed the idea that it is wrong to make all the stimuli of human behavior dependent on needs.
And I must say that Vedenov would be right if we consider needs as something primary and unchanging (and all spiritual needs of a person are reduced to them). Indeed, one cannot agree, for example, with Freud, that biological needs lie behind any action of a person, prompted by a moral feeling, or a deliberately set goal. In the same way, it is impossible to reduce a person's spiritual needs to personal, egoistic, as the French materialists of the 18th century did, developing the theory of rational egoism. But, instead of posing and solving the problem of the development of needs and showing the necessity (regularity) of their transition to a new type of stimuli for human behavior, Vedenov simply refuses to recognize the connection between the needs and conscious motives of a person, thus opposing consciousness to his affective-need sphere. He correctly names moral feelings, reason and will as specific stimuli of human behavior, but he interprets their driving force intellectually; he considers it possible to limit his explanation to the fact that a person acts on the basis of a necessity he has realized.
In addition, Vedenov understands the needs themselves very limitedly, believing that human needs, although they acquire a social character, remain within the framework of purely personal, selfish motives.
We have outlined the views of Vedenov, expressed by him in this discussion article. However, he, apparently, himself felt their insufficient convincingness and therefore in another, later article of his put forward a completely different, one might even say the opposite, concept. Referring to Karl Marx's position on the social essence of man, Vedenov develops the idea that from the moment of birth, according to his
The physical structure is capable of becoming a person, i.e., capable of purposeful creative activity, of creativity. “Children are born with all the properties of a future human personality,” he writes, “they are not only people in terms of their physical organization, but also personalities in terms of their inherent vital activity.”
Of course, Vedenov believes that all the natural inclinations of a person should be developed by upbringing, nevertheless, he considers his high spiritual needs, such as the need for creativity, communication and even collectivism, to be innate. Thus, Vedenov either classifies a person's spiritual needs as innate, or denies them as needs, replacing them with reason and consciousness.
G. A. Fortunatov and A. V. Petrovsky responded to Vedenov's statements, giving them serious methodological criticism. They correctly stated the Marxist approach to solving the problem of the origin and development of human needs, at the same time they did not give a proper psychological theory of this issue. They only pointed out that along with narrowly personal needs in a person, thanks to upbringing, such needs are also formed, which, being the needs of society, are experienced by him as a sense of duty. If these social needs are not met, a person has negative emotions, as well as when personal needs are not satisfied.
All these provisions are correct, but they still do not solve the psychological problem of the development of needs. In general, in psychology, the development of needs, as a rule, was reduced only to their quantitative growth and to the appearance of the so-called spiritual needs, the psychological mechanism of the emergence of which, in essence, was not revealed. This understanding is reflected in literally all textbooks and teaching aids on psychology and pedagogy.
AN Leont'ev is the closest to solving this problem. The most complete and at the same time succinctly he summarized his views on this issue in a report at the XVIII International Congress of Psychology. In this report, he proposed a completely original approach to solving the problem of the development of needs and their relationship to consciousness.
His approach is based on understanding motives as objects (perceived, imagined, conceivable), in which needs are specified. These objects constitute the objective content of those needs that are embodied in them. This is how human needs are objectified. A motive, according to Leontiev's definition, is an object that meets a particular need and which stimulates and directs human activity.
In accordance with this, A. I. Leontiev understands the development of needs as the result of changes and expansion of objects with the help of which they are satisfied. To satisfy their needs, people not only use natural objects, but also process them and produce new ones; and this changes the content of the natural needs of people and gives them new needs. These new needs, according to Leontiev, cannot be derived from or reduced to biological needs. Even the need for food, satisfied through specially processed products, is already another, qualitatively new need. Moreover, this applies to more complex material and spiritual needs. The latter, as Leontiev says, "arise only because their objects begin to be produced."
Relying on the statements made, Leont'ev denies the description of the development of needs in terms of “subjective states” accepted in psychology: desires, drives, affects, etc. “These states express only the dynamic aspect of needs,” writes Leont'ev, “but they do not say anything about them. content ". In reality, from the point of view of Leont'ev, the development of needs can be described only in terms of changes in their objects; this, in his opinion, transforms the problem of needs into the problem of the motives of activity.
This is how Leontiev solves the problem of the development of needs and the emergence of specific human motives of behavior.
It seems to us interesting and productive Leont'ev's position regarding the objectification of needs and the emergence of new ones through the assimilation ("appropriation") of those objects in which they crystallize.
At the same time, in our opinion, this reasoning turns out to be missing, perhaps, the most important psychological link. It remains unrevealed and incomprehensible due to what psychological mechanisms a person begins to create new objects, the needs for which he does not yet feel. What pushes him to produce such items? Of course, in ontogenetic terms, we can observe such a phenomenon when a child has new needs due to the mastery of certain objects of culture. But even here, as experimental data show, by no means all mastery leads to the emergence of a corresponding need. The birth of a new need does not occur automatically in the process of mastering the corresponding objects. For example, a child can learn to read well, can know many literary works and feel no need either to read or to enrich his knowledge.
In general, in Leont'ev's concept, as well as in the arguments of many other psychologists, the analysis of the psychological process of the development of needs, that is, the process of their transition into qualitatively new forms, turned out to be outside the brackets. He is trying to solve this problem in an abstract-theoretical plan, resorting to the data of historical mathematics where he lacks specific psychological data. And this is understandable, since there is still very little experimental research in this area, on the results of which he could rely.
The absence in Leont'ev's theoretical constructions of a genuine solution to the psychological problem of the development of needs did not give him the opportunity to find, from our point of view, the correct solution to another central psychological problem - the problem of the relationship between affect and consciousness.
Motives, from his point of view, perform a twofold function. The first is that they stimulate and direct activity, the second is that they give activity a subjective, personal meaning; therefore, the meaning of an activity is determined by its motive. The distinction between the concepts of "meaning" and "meaning" is, from the point of view of Leont'ev, decisive for understanding the relationship between motives and consciousness. The meanings carried by the language that crystallizes in itself the socio-historical
The experience of humanity, represent the basic unit of consciousness. Each individual person does not create meanings, but assimilates them. Therefore, the system of meanings appears as knowledge - as "consciousness". However, meaning and meaning, according to Leontiev, do not exist separately, their relationship characterizes the internal structure of consciousness. The meaning generated by the existence of a person, his life, is not added to the meanings, but is embodied in them. This understanding of the relationship between meaning and meaning allows, according to Leont'ev, to overcome one-sided intellectualism in understanding consciousness and thereby overcome those psychological concepts that proceed from the recognition of two different spheres acting on each other: the sphere of conscious thought and the sphere of needs and motives. “Of course,” writes Leontyev, “these spheres should be distinguished. They, however, form a single structure - the inner structure of consciousness itself. " And here, as it seems to us, the problem of the connection between affect and intellect has not received its specific psychological solution. These general considerations about the structure of consciousness leave open many, in fact, psychological questions: why, for example, goals deliberately set by a person, in some cases, perform their motivating function, and in others - not; how, by virtue of what psychological mechanisms, a person, in contrast to an animal, can act contrary to his immediate motives, but in accordance with a consciously accepted intention; what is psychologically human will, and so on. The lack of an answer to all these specific psychological problems is explained by the fact that until now the question of the genesis of specifically human stimuli of behavior remains unresolved.
In the most recent psychological studies on this issue - in the scientific works of the Novosibirsk State Pedagogical Institute - Yu. V. Sharov again raises the question of the sources of the activity of human consciousness and the relationship between material and spiritual needs of a person.
In his introductory article to the collection, having analyzed a number of points of view on this issue, he comes to the conclusion that the problem of the birth of ideal motives
The personality remains completely unclear and requires the most serious research.
Under the leadership of Sharov, numerous studies were carried out on the problems of the formation of a person's spiritual needs (and, above all, his cognitive interests), but nevertheless he did not succeed in solving this problem. He failed to show how and from where the motivating force of human consciousness arises. Moreover, he refers to biologists all psychologists who tried to understand the emergence of the highest spiritual needs of a person from a qualitative transformation of more elementary, primary needs. Such a formulation of the question, in his opinion, leads to a decrease in the role of consciousness, while he forgets the position of Engels himself cited by him that people are accustomed to explaining their actions from their thinking, instead of explaining them from their needs (which at the same time , of course, are reflected in the head, are realized).
Part II
AGE AND PEDAGOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY
PSYCHOLOGY OF TEACHING AND LEARNING
L.I. Bozovic. The problem of the development of the child's motivational sphere
In presenting the study of the motives of the educational activity of schoolchildren, we will call all the stimuli of this activity motives.
As a result of the study, it was found that the educational activity of schoolchildren is stimulated by a whole system of various motives.
For children of different ages and for every child, not all motives have the same incentive. Some of them are the main, leading, others - secondary, secondary, not having an independent meaning. The latter are always in one way or another subordinated to the leading motives. In some cases, such a leading motive may be the desire to win the place of an excellent student in the class, in other cases - the desire to get a higher education, in the third - an interest in knowledge itself.
All of these teaching motives can be divided into two broad categories. One of them is related to the content of the educational activity itself and the process of its implementation; others with the child's broader relationship with the environment. The first include the cognitive interests of children, the need for intellectual activity and mastering new skills, skills and knowledge; others are related to the child's needs in communicating with other people, in their assessment and approval, with the student's desire to take a certain place in the system of social relations available to him.
The study found that both of these categories of motives are necessary for the successful implementation of not only educational, but also any other activity. The motives coming from the activity itself have a direct impact on the subject, helping him to overcome the difficulties encountered that hinder its purposeful and systematic implementation. The function of the other type of motives is completely different: being generated by the entire social context in which the subject's life proceeds, they can stimulate his activity through consciously set goals, decisions made, sometimes even regardless of the person's direct relationship to the activity itself.
For the moral education of students, it is far from being indifferent what the content of the broad social motives of their educational activity is. Research shows that in some cases, schoolchildren perceive learning as their social duty, as a special form of participation in social work of adults. In others, they see it only as a means of getting a profitable job in the future and ensuring their material well-being. Consequently, broad social motives can embody the truly social needs of the student, but they can also represent personal, individualistic or selfish motives, and this, in turn, determines the emerging moral character of the student.
The study also found that both categories of motives are characterized by specific features at different stages of the child's development. An analysis of the characteristics of motivation for learning in schoolchildren of different ages revealed a natural course of changes in motives for learning with age and the conditions conducive to this change.
In children entering school, as the study showed, broad social motives express the need arising in senior preschool age to take a new position among others, namely, the position of a schoolchild, and the desire to perform serious, socially significant activities associated with this position.
At the same time, children entering school also have a certain level of development of cognitive interests. At first, both those and other motives ensure a conscientious, one might even say, responsible attitude of students to learning at school. In grades I and II, this attitude not only continues to persist, but even intensifies and develops.
Gradually, however, this positive attitude of young schoolchildren to learning begins to be lost. The turning point is usually grade III. Here, many children are already beginning to feel burdened by their school duties, their diligence decreases, and the teacher's authority falls noticeably. An essential reason for these changes is, first of all, that by the third-fourth grades their need for the student's position is already satisfied and the student's position loses its emotional attractiveness for them. In this regard, the teacher also begins to take a different place in the life of children. He ceases to be the central figure in the class, able to determine both the behavior of children and their relationships. Gradually, schoolchildren develop their own sphere of life, there is a special interest in the opinion of their comrades, regardless of how the teacher looks at this or that. At this stage of development, not only the opinion of the teacher, but also the attitude of the children's collective ensures that the child experiences a state of greater or lesser emotional well-being.
Broad social motives are of such great importance at a young age that, to a certain extent, they determine the direct interest of schoolchildren in the educational activity itself. In the first 2-3 years of schooling, they are interested in doing everything that the teacher suggests, everything that has the character of a serious socially significant activity.
A special study of the process of the formation of cognitive interests ... made it possible to identify their specificity at different stages of the age development of schoolchildren. At the beginning of education, the cognitive interests of children are still rather unstable. They are characterized by a well-known situationality: children can listen with interest to the teacher's story, but this interest disappears along with its end. Interests of this kind can be characterized as episodic.
Studies show that in middle school age and broad social motives for learning and educational interests take on a different character.
Among broad social motives, the leading becomes the desire of students to find their place among friends in the classroom. It was found that the desire to study well with adolescents is determined most of all by their desire to be at the level of the requirements of their comrades, to win their authority by the quality of their academic work. Conversely, the most common reason for the undisciplined behavior of schoolchildren of this age, their hostile attitude towards others, the emergence of negative character traits in them is failure in learning.
The motives directly related to the educational activity itself also undergo significant changes. Their development goes in several directions. First, interest in specific facts that broaden the horizons of students begins to recede into the background, giving way to interest in the laws governing natural phenomena. Secondly, the interests of students of this age become more stable, differentiate according to areas of knowledge and acquire a personal character. This personal character is expressed in the fact that interest ceases to be episodic, but becomes, as it were, inherent in the child himself and, regardless of the situation, begins to encourage him to actively search for ways and means of his satisfaction. It is important to note one more feature of such cognitive interest - its increase in connection with satisfaction. In fact, getting an answer to one question or another expands the student's ideas about the subject of interest, and this reveals more clearly for him the limitations of his own knowledge. The latter causes an even greater need in the child for their further enrichment. Thus, personal cognitive interest acquires, figuratively speaking, an unsaturated character.
Unlike adolescents, for whom broad social motives for learning are primarily associated with the conditions of their school life and the content of the acquired knowledge, in older schoolchildren, motives for learning begin to embody their needs and aspirations associated with their future position in life and with their professional work activity. ... Older schoolchildren are people looking to the future, and all the present, including teaching, appears for them in the light of this basic orientation of their personality. The choice of a further life path, self-determination become for them that motivational center that determines their activity, behavior and their attitude to the environment.
Summing up the studies of the broad social motives of the teaching of schoolchildren and their educational (cognitive) interests, we can put forward some provisions related to the theoretical understanding of needs and motives and their development.
First of all, it became obvious that the impulse to action always comes from the need, and the object that serves to satisfy it determines only the nature and direction of the activity. At the same time, it was found that not only one and the same need can be embodied in different objects, but the most diverse interacting, intertwining, and sometimes conflicting needs can also be embodied in the same object. For example, a mark as a motive for educational activity can embody both the need for the approval of the teacher, and the need to be at the level of one's own self-esteem, and the desire to win the authority of friends, and the desire to make it easier for oneself to enter a higher educational institution, and many other needs. Hence, it is clear that external objects can stimulate a person's activity only because they meet his existing needs or are able to actualize the one that they satisfied in the person's previous experience.
In this regard, the change in the objects in which the needs are embodied does not constitute the content of the development of needs, but is only an indicator of this development. The process of the development of needs must still be discovered and studied. However, on the basis of the research carried out, some of the paths for the development of needs may already be outlined.
Firstly, this is the path of development of needs through a change in the position of the child in life, in the system of his relationships with the people around him. At different age stages, the child occupies a different place in life, this also determines the different requirements that the surrounding social environment places on him. A child, on the other hand, can only experience the emotional well-being he needs when he is able to meet the requirements. This gives rise to needs specific to each age stage. In the above study of the development of the motives of the student's learning activity, it was found that the change in motives hides first the needs associated with the student's new social position, then with the child's position in the peer group and, finally, the position of the future member of society. Apparently, this path of development of needs is characteristic not only of the child. The needs of an adult also undergo changes in connection with changes in his lifestyle and in himself - his experience, knowledge, in the level of his mental development.
Secondly, the child's needs arise in the process of his development in connection with his assimilation of new forms of behavior and activity, with the mastery of ready-made objects of culture. So, for example, many children who have learned to read have a need for reading, have learned to listen to music - a need for music, have learned to be accurate - a need for accuracy, who have mastered a particular sport - a need for sports activity. Thus, the path of development of needs, which was indicated by Leontiev, undoubtedly takes place, only it does not exhaust all directions of development of needs and does not fully disclose its mechanisms.
The third conclusion is that, in addition to expanding the range of needs and the emergence of new ones, development occurs within each need from its elementary forms to more complex, qualitatively unique ones. This path was especially clearly revealed in the development of cognitive needs, which occurs in the process of educational activity of students: from elementary forms of episodic educational interest to complex forms of a basically inexhaustible need for theoretical knowledge.
And finally, the last path of development of needs ... is the path of development of the structure of the child's motivational sphere, i.e. development of the ratio of interacting needs and motives.
Here there is a change with age and leading, dominant needs and their kind of hierarchization.
Studying the motivation of behavior in children and adolescents Ed. L.I. Bozovic and L.V. Trustworthiness. M., 1972, p. 22-29
Motivation Motivation is what the activity is for. (L. I. Bozhovich.) Motivation is a complex mechanism of correlating a person's external and internal factors of behavior, which determines the emergence, direction, and also the way of carrying out activities. (L. I. Bozhovich) The motive of educational activity is all factors that determine the manifestation of educational activity: needs, goals, attitudes, a sense of duty, interests, etc. (Rosenfeld G.)
Self-actualization Self-esteem (the need to feel competent, independent and worthy) Belonging, love (for family, group) Lower level needs Safety, retention (need to avoid pain, fear, be safe) Physiological needs (Need to get food, water, air , roof)
Classification of motives - By the nature of participation in activities (understood, known, actually acting) - according to A. N. Leont'ev - Time (distant and short motivation) - according to B. F. Lomov - Social significance (social, narrow-minded) - according to P. M. Yakobson - By type of activity (play, educational, labor) - according to IA Zimnyaya - By the nature of communication (business, emotional) - according to PM Yakobson.
Factors: Educational system Educational institution Organization of the educational process Subjective characteristics of the student (gender, age, intellectual development, abilities, level of aspirations, self-esteem, relationship with other students) Subjective characteristics of the teacher and, above all, the system of his relationship to the student, to business. Specificity of the subject
According to L.I.Bozhovich, motivation is stimulated by a hierarchy of motives, in which either internal motives associated with the content of this activity and its implementation, or broad social motives associated with the child's need to take a certain position in the system of social relations, can be dominant.
Ontogenetic aspect Entering school - a cognitive motive, prestige, striving for adulthood Junior schoolchild - social motivation Adolescent communication, interest in one subject, striving to find one's place. Youth - preparation for entering a vocational educational institution.
Ways to form educational motivation through the assimilation of the social meaning of learning by students. The goal of the teacher: is to bring to the consciousness of the child those motives that are not socially significant, but have a sufficiently high level of effectiveness (the desire to get a good grade);
Through the very activity of the student's teaching, which should interest him in something. The goal of the teacher: increasing the effectiveness of motives that are recognized by students as important, but do not really affect their behavior (the way of disclosing the subject, disclosing the essence of the underlying phenomenon, working in small groups, the goal set by the teacher becomes the goal of the student, the student's awareness of their successes , problematic nature of training, an activity-based approach to training).
When working individually with students who have a negative attitude towards school and a low level of motivation. The reason is the inability to learn. The teacher's action is to identify weaknesses. Phased elimination of weak links. Celebrate successes. Show the student his progress. The reason is the lack of learning tools (poorly developed cognitive abilities). Teacher actions - focus on what the child can do, play activities, non-standard tasks. nineteen
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