If possible, inclusion in the production process is isolated. Manufacturing process. Production cycle and its structure
5.3.1. Laws of organization of production
and competitiveness
Any science consistently goes through three stages of development: the accumulation of material, its systematization, the establishment of patterns. Logistics as a science is currently at the turn of the second stage. The systematization of the available material has not yet been completed, and in parallel, attempts are already being made to determine the principles and identify patterns of optimization of flow processes. As a science and practice, logistics aims to increase the organization of production systems, and therefore it closely interacts with the organization of production as a science of designing, creating and developing production systems. The laws and patterns of production organization are the basis for solving logistical problems.
Currently, in the theory of organization of production, two groups of patterns can be distinguished: patterns of organization of production systems and patterns of organization of production processes. A great achievement in the modern theory of the organization of production can be considered the identification and description of how the laws of organization of highly efficient, rhythmic production processes manifest themselves. These are the following laws:
The law of the orderliness of the movement of objects of labor in production;
The law of calendar synchronization of the duration of technological operations;
The law of emergence of the main and auxiliary production processes;
The law of reservation of resources in production;
The law of the rhythm of the production cycle of order fulfillment.
The use of the above laws of organization of production processes makes it possible to plan and maintain the rhythmic work of the production units of an enterprise, i.e. work in the form of a rational organization of production processes, in which the processes of manufacturing individual parts, sets of parts and fulfilling individual orders of the program are combined according to a predetermined plan. This combination provides rhythmic work as a continuous resumption of the entire production process simultaneously (in parallel) in all production departments and at each workplace in strict accordance with the planned proportionality, technological directness and economically justified reliability of the release of products on time and of proper quality.
The organization and maintenance of the rhythmic work of each enterprise and its production units makes it possible to eliminate the traditional loss of working time resources of workers and equipment (and they account for at least 40% of the initial value of resources) for organizational and technical reasons. The organization and maintenance of the rhythmic work of each enterprise involves the purposeful reservation of resources in terms of up to 5-8% of their original value. And finally, the organization and maintenance of the rhythmic work of each enterprise provides it with competitive advantages: leadership in terms of minimum costs, guaranteed delivery time of orders, individualization of products according to customer requirements, flexible regulation of production volume, expansion of services and a number of other advantages.
5.3.2. Law of Order of Motion
objects of labor in production
The traditional lack of standardization and typification of individual technological routes for the manufacture of various items of labor (details) causes their disorderly, almost chaotic movement in production. It is easy to see this if the routes of movement of parts are superimposed on the layout of the enterprise and its production units that are involved in their manufacture. With the chaotic movement of parts, the completion time of a particular operation or the manufacture of a product as a whole can be determined only in the order of forecasting according to one or another probabilistic model.
This feature of the organization of the production process in space and time allows us to formulate the law of orderliness of the movement of objects of labor in production: without preliminary organization of the movement of objects of labor along standard inter-shop and intra-shop technological routes, it is generally impossible to plan the course of production. Indeed, if the direction of movement and its average speed are known, then, obviously, it is possible to set deadlines for reaching a given point on the route of movement. This is very important when planning the progress of production for individual orders.
It is traditionally believed that the processing of a batch of parts at a technological operation is the movement of this batch, and the time of its interoperational lying in anticipation of the release of the next workplace or downtime of the workplace in anticipation of the completion of the processing of this batch of parts at the previous operation is the time of breaks during the production process. The duration of breaks is of a medium-probability nature, therefore, reliable planning of the timing of the progress of production is possible only when using the maximum probabilistic timing of work.
The orderly movement of parts in production can be achieved in two ways:
1) standardization and typification of intershop and intrashop technological routes;
2) designing a typical scheme for the movement of objects of labor in production (TSD PT).
Standardization and typification of technical routes does not allow taking into account all the possibilities in the formation of unidirectional material flows, while the design of the TSD PT based on the design and technological classifier of objects of labor for the entire production program ensures the use of all potential possibilities for organizing unidirectional material flows. TSD PT makes possible more than a tenfold reduction in the number of different intershop technological routes (casings). The use of TSD PT also leads to a sharp reduction in the number of intra-production links between sections, greatly reduces the complexity and laboriousness of planning and managing production, and, in addition, creates the necessary institutional framework coordination of the deadlines for the execution of work with a full load of planned jobs and production units with the minimum necessary and complete work in progress.
An increase in the orderliness of the movement of objects of labor in production is facilitated by the rational sequence of launching parts into production. Streamlining the launch of parts into production according to different criteria can either reduce the duration of the total cycle of manufacturing the parts in question, or reduce intra-shift downtime of workplaces, or increase the stability of the production process according to the schedule. The use of these opportunities also contributes to increased production efficiency.
5.3.3. Manifestation of the law of continuity
production process
The production process takes place in time and space. The time of the production process is characterized by the duration of the production cycle, the downtime of jobs and the time spent by objects of labor. All three characteristics, especially the last two, strongly depend on the value of the maximum duration of one of the operations, the average duration of all operations, and the degree of asynchrony of the duration of operations. The spatial flow of the production process is characterized by: a) production structure; b) the structure of available resources; c) the sequence and structure of labor costs required for the manufacture of products in the implementation of the production program of the enterprise.
Changing the organization of the movement of objects of labor in time constantly leads to the same results: the duration of the production cycle changes, the total downtime of jobs changes, and the total time of interoperational lying of objects of labor changes. The actual duration of the production cycle in comparison with the calculated one is the final assessment characterizing the level of reliability and quality of the calendar-scheduled calculations of the production progress. Minimization of production losses from the total downtime of workplaces and from the total time of interoperational lying of objects of labor characterizes the level of organization and efficiency of the production process.
Any changes in the organization of the movement of objects of labor in space, in accordance with the law of orderliness of movement, should not violate the unidirectionality of material flows. Otherwise, the reliability of calendar and planning calculations and the reliability of the timely fulfillment of obligations for the supply of products will be lost.
Interoperational storage of objects of labor and downtime of workplaces in the process of manufacturing products serve as a kind of calendar compensators that equalize the calendar duration of related technological operations at production sites. The efficiency of the manufacturing process depends on which of the calendar compensators is used in a larger or smaller volume. In the production process, the time of interoperational aging of objects of labor and the downtime of workplaces are opposed to each other as various calendar compensators that exclude various elements of production from the production process: either the worker and the means of labor, or the objects of labor.
Already on closer examination, it is obvious that under conditions not mass production continuous loading of jobs is preferable. This is also confirmed by a deeper analysis of production losses from 1 hour of downtime of the workplace and 1 hour of lying a batch of labor items. In the conditions of mass production, on the contrary, downtime of workplaces is preferable, since the delay in the movement of one object of labor for 1 hour is equivalent to stopping each workplace of the production line for 1 hour. Comparison of production losses from 1 hour of downtime of the workplace and from 1 hour of lying a batch of objects of labor allows us to formulate some rules for choosing rational (effective) methods for the calendar organization of the production process:
In all types of production, 1 hour of downtime of the workplace and 1 hour of lying of a batch of the object of labor are opposed to each other not only as different compensators that equalize the duration of operations, but also as production losses of different magnitude;
In non-flow production, the production process should be organized according to the principle of continuous loading of jobs, as opposed to the principle of continuous movement of objects of labor in flow production;
The choice of the principle of organization of the production process (continuous loading of workers or continuous movement of objects of labor) in specific conditions is determined by the ratio of production losses from idle jobs and from lying objects of labor.
5.3.4. Manifestation of the law of the rhythm of the production cycle
product manufacturing
The law of the rhythm of the production cycle of manufacturing a product manifests itself every time when, in the process of manufacturing an individual product or its parts, an uneven consumption of working time resources of workers and equipment is formed or fixed relative to their production cycles (time of their production).
The law of the rhythm of the production cycle of manufacturing a product is an objectively existing set of significant causal relationships between the parameters of the production program of an enterprise (i.e., composition, timing, priorities, proportions of production objects and their structural labor intensity), on the one hand, and the structure of production elements ( for example, the structure of working time resources of various jobs of the main production), consumed in production, on the other.
The law of the rhythm of the production cycle of manufacturing a product is the essential connections that: a) manifest themselves in the coordination and harmonization of quantitative organizational and technological proportions of the mating elements of the production process (objects of labor, workers and jobs) in space and time; b) depend on the parameters of the production program and on the characteristics of the organization of production at the enterprise and at each production site. It is well known that the coordination of work only in terms of time is an insufficient guarantee of timely execution of the order. The works should be interconnected both in terms of time and in terms of the volume and structure of the resources used in time and space.
The uneven consumption of material and labor resources during the production cycle of manufacturing a product has been noticed for a long time. So, back in the early 1930s, it was proposed, by means of a calendar redistribution of the manufacturing processes of product parts, to organize an even distribution of all “production work” on the product throughout its production cycle. However, in practice, even with careful study of the calendar schedules for the manufacture of products, it is impossible to obtain a uniform “production capacity of the process”.
The unevenness of labor costs in size and structure during the production cycle of manufacturing a product is determined by the production technology (a certain sequence of technological operations), which cause, for example, sharp changes in the magnitude and structure of labor costs at the time of completion of technological operations on a set of product parts. So, at the time of launching the leading parts, the number of workplaces at which the first operations are performed on the parts of the kit of the product under consideration is very limited compared to the number of parts of the kit.
On the one hand, the number of workplaces where the first operations of the technological process are performed is much less than the total number of workplaces involved in production; on the other hand, not all workplaces where the first operations are performed can be occupied by the manufacture of parts of the set of the product in question, since simultaneously with the parts this product parts of other products are launched. Therefore, at the time of launching the leading parts in the machining section, the front of jobs simultaneously participating in the manufacture of parts of the set under consideration is insignificant and much less than the average estimated number of jobs that must continuously participate in the manufacture of parts of the set of this product throughout the production cycle of manufacturing the product.
After the leading parts of the set pass the first technological operations, all other parts of the set are gradually put into operation. From the moment the first part of the kit is launched to the first operation of the process and until the moment the first part of the kit is launched to the last operation of the process, the process of manufacturing a set of parts is deployed. The front of jobs, simultaneously occupied by the manufacture of parts of this set, from the moment of launch, begins to increase and reaches its maximum at the moment of completion of the first operation of the process (at the moment of completion of processing of the parts of the set at the first operation of a typical technological route).
If the best organization of the production process in time and space is achieved, then the “golden section” rule applies: at the moment corresponding to the point of the “golden section”, the production cycle for manufacturing the set of parts in question is divided into two parts; moreover, the production cycle of manufacturing a set relates to its greater part in the same way as this greater part of the cycle relates to a smaller one (Fig. 5.2).
At the point of the "golden section", the number of jobs involved in the manufacture of kit parts, as a rule, is twice the average
Rice. 5.2. The curve of the "golden section":
the KSC curve shows how the production process should develop optimally if it is necessary to complete the scope of work of the OABC for 100 units. time. The planned work with the volume of OABC can be completed on time if at the point of the "golden section" M (Tc == 61.8) to attract resources in the amount of at least Q (59 units). Properties of the "golden section": I) point M divides the straight line OS in the proportion OS: OM = OM: MS; 2) point L divides line MS in proportion SM: LM = LM: LS; 3) the area under the curve of the "golden section" KSC should be equal to the area of the rectangle OABS
the average number of jobs allocated in the plan for the manufacture of the considered set of parts. For an optimal manufacturing process of a set of parts, the point of the "golden section" should be between 2/3 and 3/4 of the duration of the machining cycle of the considered set of parts. At this moment, in the manufacture of parts of this set, workplaces simultaneously participate, at which intermediate and finishing operations of the technological route for the manufacture of a set of parts are performed.
Since the completion of the processing of a set of parts in the first operation, the manufacturing process of the considered set of parts begins to roll up. The front of jobs is gradually shrinking. As the production of an increasing part of the parts of the set under consideration is completed, the number of simultaneously working intermediate jobs is greatly reduced. At the end of the manufacturing cycle of the considered set of parts, only finishing jobs work.
From the foregoing, the following conclusion can be drawn: during the cycle of machining a set of product parts in one subdivision, the front of jobs varies greatly in number and composition. The rhythm of the production cycle of manufacturing a product is a natural combination of the processes of expanding and curtailing the manufacture of sets of blanks, parts, assembly units products by stages of production and production sites, and in each production unit - a natural change in the volume and composition of work performed on each set of objects of labor of this product relative to the production cycle of manufacturing a set of parts in this unit. At the same time, a change in the duration of the cycle of performing work on a set of objects of labor of a given product in any production unit does not change the internal proportions of the distribution of the volume and composition of these works relative to the same shares of the production cycle of the considered set of objects of labor. The lengthening of the production cycle for the manufacture of a set of objects of labor, as a rule, is associated with a decrease in the number of jobs allocated for the manufacture of this set.
There are three possible methods for modeling the rhythm of the production cycle of manufacturing a product: statistical, static and dynamic. As a statistical method, statistical modeling of the product manufacturing process is used, and on this basis, a standard for the calendar distribution of the labor intensity of the product relative to its production cycle is developed. The method of statistical modeling of the rhythm of the production cycle of manufacturing a product is relatively simple. All operational orders are selected, according to which the manufacture of an already released product was paid. The outfits are sorted by workshops, by groups of interchangeable and special equipment. Then an additional sorting of the outfits of each group is carried out according to calendar intervals in accordance with the deadlines. Days, weeks and months can be used as such intervals, for example for longer production runs.
The labor intensity of work in operational orders that fall within a given interval of calendar time is summed up, and variational series of (absolute) distribution of labor costs of each type are obtained during the actual duration of the production cycle of the product. If each value of a separate variation series is plotted on the graph with points and these points are connected in series, then a broken line will be obtained, reflecting the actual calendar distribution of the labor intensity of performing work of a certain type relative to the duration of the production cycle of manufacturing the product.
The actual length of the production cycle of manufacturing a product is usually divided into 10 equal parts. Each segment of the length of the cycle corresponds to its own area, bounded by a broken line of the actual distribution of labor intensity. There are also ten such plots. Then the specific gravity of each plot in the total area is determined. It turns out a variational series that reflects the specific distribution of labor costs of this type of work relative to each 1/10 share of the actual production cycle of the product. This is done for each type of work, and a statistical model of the distribution of labor costs, or a statistical model of the rhythm of the production cycle of manufacturing a product, is obtained.
The static method of modeling the rhythm of the production cycle of manufacturing a product involves the preliminary construction of a static model of the production process. As such a model, a step-by-step scheme for the entry (unbundling) of assembly units, parts, blanks, semi-finished products, etc. into the product is recommended. One shift is usually taken for the calendar duration of each operation in this scheme.
The step-by-step entry scheme resembles a “tree”, in which the operations of the main assembly act as the “trunk”, the operations for assembling assembly units act as large “branches” extending from the “trunk”, and the “branches” are the operations for manufacturing parts and blanks. If we take the moment of completion of the last operation of the general assembly as the starting point and assign the first number to it, then by assigning the numbers of each operation of the “trunk”, “branch” in the reverse order of the technological process, we will get the binding of each technological operation of manufacturing the product to a specific shift number, which is taken as the scheduling cycle.
The operation with the highest number, in essence, determines the duration of the production cycle for the manufacture of the product. If now, in each planning step, we sum up the labor intensity of operations by type of work, then we obtain the distribution of the labor intensity of manufacturing a product by type of work with respect to each share of its production cycle, i.e., a static rhythm of the production cycle of manufacturing a product will be formulated.
A statistical model reflecting the rhythm of the production cycle of manufacturing a product with an error of 40%, and a static model with an error of 30% predict (catch) the nature of the change in the power of the manufacturing process of a product by phases of the production process. These inaccuracies in determining the calendar distribution of the structure of the labor intensity of manufacturing the product lead to planning errors regarding the appointment of contractual delivery dates, unpredictable occurrence bottlenecks in production, large losses of working time, jobs and equipment. When using the statistical method, approximately 40% is lost, and when using the static method, approximately 30% of the working time of workers and equipment is lost.
In contrast to the statistical and static models, the dynamic model of the rhythm of the production cycle of manufacturing a product allows you to more reliably set the maximum probabilistic (latest) deadlines for the completion of work. At the same time, the manufacturing processes of each product are linked with the manufacturing processes of all other products included in the production program; the spatial structure of the production cycle, the dynamics of the structure of the labor intensity of manufacturing each product, the continuous loading of production units during the implementation of the production program are taken into account.
The dynamic model for the formation of the rhythm of the production cycle of manufacturing a product is built on the basis of an increase in the organization of the flow of the production process and, in general, contributes to a reliable determination of the duration of the production cycle for the manufacture of each product, ensuring the rational use of production resources (reducing losses of working time to 5-10%, eliminating overtime, increase in equipment load, reduction of working capital in work in progress).
5.3.5. Manifestations of the law of calendar synchronization
cycles of manufacturing processes for products and their parts
Synchronization of the cycles of the manufacturing processes of products and their parts takes place in any production process, but, as a rule, it was not given any importance, as if it was absent. If the synchronization process of process cycles is not controlled, then the duration of the cycles will increase by a factor of three, since in this case the calendar alignment of each part of the process will exceed the value of the largest cycle of the corresponding part of the process. This is true for each level of dividing the product manufacturing process into parts: operation, part, assembly operation, set of parts, product manufacturing stage (preparation, machining, assembly). Uncontrolled synchronization leads to a multiple excess of the rational level of work in progress and large losses in the working time of workers and equipment (at present, in non-flow production, the loss of working time reaches 50%).
Knowledge about the manifestations of the law of synchronization of the cycles of the manufacturing processes of products and their parts is necessary as the basis of the art of managing the production process in order to minimize production costs. To ensure the competitiveness of the enterprise, the possibility of minimizing production costs is, as a rule, of paramount importance.
Synchronization of cycles of technological operations
Interoperational storage of objects of labor and downtime of workplaces in the process of manufacturing products serve as a kind of calendar compensators that equalize the calendar duration of related technological operations at production sites. The phenomenon of equalizing the calendar duration of related technological operations has the force of law. The effect of this law can be seen in various examples.
Example 1 (continuous flow production). Preliminary forced organizational and technological synchronization of the duration of interrelated technological operations for processing a part allows you to organize a continuous production line for its manufacture. On this line, the continuity of the movement (manufacturing) of each part and the continuous loading of each workplace are ensured. But forced synchronization of the duration of technological operations is quite expensive. It is resorted to when the gain from the synchronization of operations covers the cost of it.
Example 2 (discontinuous production). On a direct-flow line, the synchronization of technological operations is a controlled process. For example, when constructing a schedule for a direct-flow line, synchronization of the duration of adjacent technological operations is provided. The calendar organization of all forms of in-line production is built on the principle of continuous movement of parts: synchronization of the duration of part operations here should be carried out only due to downtime of workplaces, but this is inefficient, since 1 hour of downtime of a workplace (worker and equipment) costs more than 1 hour of waiting one detail. Therefore, a parallel-sequential movement of parts is organized, when all micro-downtimes of workplaces are concentrated.
This concentration becomes possible due to the assumption of some interoperational soaking of parts. The concentration of downtime micropauses of each workplace allows you to release the worker and transfer him to another operation for this time. Here, the synchronization of the duration of detail operations to the value of the cycle of the production line is carried out both due to downtime of the equipment of workplaces, and due to the interoperational soaking of parts.
In general, with any form of organization of production, the unequal duration of technological operations is leveled up to a certain calendar limit either due to the aging of parts, or due to downtime of workplaces, or due to both at the same time.
Example 3 (non-linear production). In non-flow production with random movement of parts, the calendar redistribution of the alignment of the duration of technological operations, as a rule, is greater than the maximum duration of the technological operation, taken from the totality of operations performed in the planning period under consideration. With ordered movement of parts, the minimum calendar limit for leveling operations can be controlled.
The alignment of the duration of technological operations in non-flow production has two objective reasons. The first is that, like inline production, the organization of the continuity of the production process in non-linear production requires synchronization of the duration of operations. The second reason for leveling is the need to complete objects of labor in the process of their manufacture to the size of a planning and accounting unit (vehicle set, conditional set, brigade set, route set, etc.). For example, parts that have already been processed are forced to lie in wait for the production of the very last part of the kit, and those that did not get into the first operation immediately at the time the kit was launched are forced to wait for their turn to be launched into processing.
The calendar limit for equalizing the duration of technological operations characterizes the course of the production process from its two contradictory sides - as the continuity of loading jobs (Ri) and as the continuity of manufacturing objects of labor (Rj). Naturally, under given organizational and technological conditions, the minimum production costs are achieved with the greatest continuity in the use of means of production (jobs), and this corresponds to a single optimal rhythm for manufacturing batches of parts in production (Re).
The volume-dynamic planning method and the organization of the production process on the principle of continuous loading of planned jobs make it possible to ensure not only the loading of jobs, but also the minimum duration of the production cycle for manufacturing the considered route set of parts (Tmkd). If one or more jobs are used at each operation of the process of manufacturing a route set of parts (i.e., at a set operation), then the duration of the production cycle can be determined by the formula:
¾ the number of items of parts to be manufactured on
plot in a certain planning period and constituting one
set of parts;
t'j ¾ the average time interval through which the transmission is carried out
batches of parts of one name to the next
complete operation after completion of their processing on the j-th
set operations t'j = tj /Cj ;
t m'j - the smaller of the two average time intervals, after
which transfer parts of the kit from adjacent
j-th or (j + 1)-th set of operations;
Cj - the number of jobs involved in the processing of parts
set on the smaller j-th set operation;
t'j - average duration of technological operations
over the details of the set on the j-th set-operation (or on the j-th type
j - serial number of a set operation or operation of a typical
technological route, along which the details of the considered
set are being processed, j = 1, ..., m.
Here, the manufacturing cycle of a set of parts is determined taking into account the conditions for organizing the production process: the number of nomenclature positions in the plan (n’); the number of jobs used in each operation of the process (Сj); the average duration of the execution of one technological operation on the parts of the set at each j-th set operation (Re). This formula determines the relationship between the number of nomenclature items in the plan, the planned deadline for the completion of work, and the standard batch size of parts.
Synchronization of parts manufacturing cycles
The calendar synchronization of parts manufacturing cycles has an obvious character. So, if the parts have the same number of operations, then their cycles are aligned due to the alignment of the durations of their operations. Parts in production departments are usually manufactured in sets, which means that the duration of the manufacturing cycle for each part of the kit is equal to the duration of the manufacturing cycle for the set of parts in question.
Synchronization of the duration of the process set operation
production of kits
Currently, many production planners are faced with the problem: what front of jobs in a particular area should be allocated to perform work on a specific product (order)? The problem, as a rule, is complicated by the fact that you need to work on several orders at the same time. It turns out that the law of synchronization also saves here - it is necessary to achieve synchronization of the assembly operation, and then the duration of the cycles for manufacturing sets of parts is automatically reduced. Consider simple examples of the interconnection of a set operation. (Fig. 5.3).
Legend:
<->duration of a picking operation
<---->leads between picking operations
Rice. 5.3. Illustration of pick operation duration synchronization:
Tc - the total cycle of manufacturing a set of parts
in three operations
It can be seen from the figure that in case of violations of the synchronization of the durations of a set operation, the total cycle lengthens. Extension of the second set operation by 50 units. (Fig. 5.3, b) and reducing the length of the second set of operations by 50 units. (Fig. 5.3, c) give the same result - lengthening the total cycle by 50 units.
The concept of the production process. Basic principles of the organization of the production process. Principles of organization of production.
Organization and management of the production process
1. The concept of the production process. Basic principles of the organization of the production process.
The task of the enterprise is to perceive the "input" factors of production (costs), process them and "output" to issue products (result) (Scheme 1.). This kind of transformational process is referred to as "production". Its aim is ultimately to improve what is already there, in order to increase the supply of funds available to meet needs.
The production (transformation) process consists in converting costs ("input") into results ("output"); in this case, it is necessary to observe a number of rules of the game.
Scheme 1. The main structure of the production transformation process.
Between the costs at the "input" (Input) and the result at the "output" (Output), as well as in parallel with this, numerous actions take place at the enterprise ("tasks are solved"), which only in their unity fully describe the production transformation process (Scheme 2). Let us consider here only briefly characterized particular tasks of the production transformation process.
The production transformation process consists of particular tasks of provision (supply), warehousing (storage), product manufacturing, marketing, financing, staff training and the introduction of new technologies, as well as management.
The task of supplying an enterprise includes the purchase or rental (leasing) of means of production, the purchase of raw materials (for enterprises with tangible products), and the hiring of employees.
The task of warehousing (storage) includes all production work that occurs before the actual process of production (manufacturing) of products in connection with the storage of means of production, raw materials and materials, and after it - with the storage and storage of finished products.
In the problem of manufacturing products, we are talking about production work within the production process. At enterprises manufacturing tangible products, they are largely determined by the technological component. In particular, it is necessary to determine when, what products, in what place, using which production factors must be produced ("production planning").
Scheme 2. Particular tasks of the production transformation process.
The task of marketing products is related to the study of the sales market, the impact on it (for example, through advertising), as well as the sale or leasing of the company's products.
The task of financing is between sales and supply: by selling products, or the result of the production process (Output), money is earned, and by supplying (or ensuring production - Input), money is spent. However, often the outflow and inflow of money are not the same (do not cover each other). Thus, large investments may not be offset by sales revenue. Therefore, a temporary shortage of funds to pay for overdue loans and an excess of funds spent on providing loans (leasing, rent) are typical financing tasks. This also includes, within the framework of "financial management", the receipt of income (profit), as well as the investment of capital in other enterprises through the capital market.
Staff training and the introduction of new technologies should enable employees to constantly improve their skills, and through this they would be able to implement and develop the latest technology in all areas of the enterprise and especially in the field of new products and production technologies.
The task of management (leadership) includes work that covers the preparation and adoption of managerial decisions in order to direct and manage all other production activities in the enterprise. In this regard, accounting at the enterprise (including the annual balance sheet, cost analysis, production statistics, financing) is of particular importance. Accounting must fully include and evaluate all current documents that characterize the production process.
Particular tasks of the production transformation process ("Input" - "Output") and their connection with the value creation process can be considered as a "value chain" that connects the links (suppliers and consumers) located before and after the production process itself (production process).
Including the above - the production process is the process of reproduction of material goods and production relations.
As a process of reproduction of material goods, the production process is a combination of labor processes and natural processes necessary for the manufacture of a certain type of product.
The main elements that determine the labor process, and consequently the production process, are purposeful activity (or labor itself), objects of labor and means of labor.
Expedient activity (or labor itself) is carried out by a person who expends neuromuscular energy to perform various mechanical movements, to monitor and control the impact of tools on labor objects.
The objects of labor are determined by the products that are produced by the enterprise. The main products of machine-building plants are various kinds of products. According to GOST 2.101–68*, a product is any item or set of items of labor to be manufactured at an enterprise. Depending on the purpose, products of the main production and products of auxiliary production are distinguished.
Products of the main production include products intended for marketable products. Auxiliary products should include products intended only for the own needs of the enterprise that manufactures them (for example, tools own production). Products intended for sale, but at the same time used for the company's own needs, should be classified as auxiliary production products in the part in which they are used for their own needs.
There are the following types of products: parts, assembly units, complexes and kits.
In addition, products are divided into: a) unspecified (details), if they do not have constituent parts; b) specified (assembly units, complexes, kits), if they consist of two or more components. Any product (part, assembly unit, complex and kit) can be an integral part.
A detail is an object that cannot be divided into parts without destroying it. A part may consist of several parts (objects) brought into a permanent indivisible state by some method (for example, by welding).
Assembly unit (assembly) - detachable or one-piece pairing of several parts.
Complexes and kits may consist of interconnected assembly units and parts,
Products are characterized by the following qualitative and quantitative parameters.
1. Constructive complexity. It depends on the number of parts and assembly units included in the product; this number can vary from a few pieces (simple products) to tens of thousands (complex products).
2. Dimensions and weight. Dimensions can vary from a few millimeters (or even less) to several tens (even hundreds) of meters (for example, ships). The mass of the product depends on the size and, accordingly, can vary from grams (milligrams) to tens (and thousands) of tons From this point of view, all products are divided into small, medium and large.The boundaries of their division depend on the industry of engineering (type of product).
3. Types, brands and sizes of materials used. Their number reaches tens (even hundreds) of thousands.
4. The complexity of processing parts and assembling the assembly unit of the product as a whole. It can vary from fractions of standard minutes to several thousand standard hours. On this basis, non-labor-intensive (low-labor-intensive) and labor-intensive products are distinguished.
5. The degree of accuracy and roughness of the processing of parts and the accuracy of assembling assembly units and products. In this regard, products are divided into high-precision, precise and low-precision.
6. The specific weight of standard, normalized and unified parts and assembly units.
7. The number of manufactured products; it can range from units to millions per year.
Product characteristics largely determine the organization of the production process in space and time.
So, the number of processing and assembly shops or sections and the ratio between them depends on the structural complexity of the products.
The more complex the product, the greater the share of assembly work and assembly sites and workshops in the structure of the enterprise. The size, weight and number of products affect the organization of their assembly; to create one or another type of in-line production; organization of transportation of parts, assembly units and products to workplaces, sections and workshops; largely determine the type of movement in jobs (operations) and the duration of the production cycle.
For large and heavy products, fixed production lines with periodic movement of conveyors are used. Cranes and special vehicles are used for their transportation. Their movement through operations is organized mainly in parallel form. The duration of the production cycle for the manufacture of such products is long, it is sometimes measured in years.
Sometimes it is necessary to organize sections of large, small and medium parts in machine shops.
The need for a combination of certain harvesting and processing sites or workshops depends on the type and brand of processed materials.
In the presence of a large number of blanks from castings and forgings, it is necessary to create foundry shops (iron foundries, steel foundries, non-ferrous castings, and others), forging and pressing (hot and cold pressing) shops. In the manufacture of many blanks from rolled material, procurement sites or workshops will be required. When machining parts made of non-ferrous metals, as a rule, it is necessary to organize separate sections.
The degree of accuracy and cleanliness of processing and assembly affects the composition of equipment and sections, their location.
For the processing of highly precise parts and the assembly of assembly units and products, it is necessary to organize separate sections, since this requires the creation of special sanitary and hygienic conditions.
The composition of equipment, sections and workshops depends on the specific weight of standard, normalized and unified parts and assembly units.
The manufacture of standard and normalized parts, as a rule, is carried out in special areas or in special workshops. For them mass production is organized.
Labor intensity and the number of manufactured products affect the composition and quantity of equipment, workshops and sections, their location, the possibility of organizing mass production, the duration of the production cycle, the amount of work in progress, the cost and other economic indicators of the enterprise. Products that are not manufactured at this enterprise, but are received in finished form, are purchased. They are also called accessories.
On each machine-building plant usually several products are produced simultaneously, different in design and size. The list of all types of products manufactured by the plant is called the nomenclature.
The means of labor include tools of production, land, buildings and structures, vehicles. In the composition of the means of labor, the decisive role belongs to equipment, especially working machines.
For each piece of equipment, the manufacturer draws up a passport, which indicates the date of manufacture of the equipment and a complete list of its technical characteristics (processing speed, engine power, allowable forces, maintenance and operation rules, etc.).
The combination of elements of the labor process (labor of a certain qualification, tools and objects of labor) and partial production processes (manufacturing of individual components of the finished product or performing a certain stage in the manufacturing process of products) is carried out according to qualitative and quantitative characteristics and is carried out in several directions. There are element-by-element (functional), spatial and temporal sections of the organization of production.
The element-by-element section of the organization of production is connected with the ordering of equipment, technology, objects of labor, tools and labor itself into a single production process. The organization of production involves the introduction of the most productive machines and equipment that provide a high level of mechanization and automation of the production process; use of high quality and efficient materials; improvement of designs and models of manufactured products; intensification and introduction of more progressive technological regimes.
The main task of the element-by-element organization of production is the correct and rational selection of the composition of equipment, tools, materials, blanks and qualifications of personnel in order to ensure their full use in the production process. The problem of mutual correspondence of the elements of the production process is especially relevant in complex highly mechanized and automated processes with a dynamic range of production.
The combination of partial production processes ensures the spatial and temporal organization of production. The manufacturing process includes many sub-processes aimed at manufacturing the finished product. The classification of production processes is shown in fig. 3.
Scheme 3. Classification of production processes
By role in common process production of finished products distinguish production processes:
basic, aimed at changing the main objects of labor and giving them the properties of finished products; in this case, the partial production process is associated either with the implementation of any stage of processing the object of labor, or with the manufacture of a part of the finished product;
auxiliary, creating conditions for the normal course of the main production process (manufacturing of tools for the needs of their production, repair of technological equipment, etc.);
serving, intended for movement (transport processes), storage in anticipation of further processing (warehousing), control (control operations), provision of material, technical and energy resources, etc.;
managerial, in which decisions are developed and made, regulation and coordination of the course of production, control over the accuracy of the implementation of the program, analysis and accounting of the work carried out; these processes are often intertwined with the course of production processes.
The main processes, depending on the stage of manufacturing the finished product, are divided into procurement, processing, assembly and finishing. Procurement processes, as a rule, are very diverse. For example, in a machine-building plant, they include metal cutting, foundry, forging and pressing operations; at a garment factory - decatering and cutting of fabrics; at a chemical plant - cleaning of raw materials, bringing it to the desired concentration, etc. The products of harvesting processes are used in different processing departments. Processing shops are represented in mechanical engineering by metalworking; in the clothing industry - tailoring; in metallurgy - blast furnace, rolling; in chemical production - by the process of cracking, electrolysis, etc. Assembly and finishing processes in mechanical engineering are represented by assembly and painting; v textile industry– painting and finishing processes; in sewing - finishing, etc.
The purpose of auxiliary processes is to produce products that are used in the main process, but are not part of the finished product. For example, the manufacture of tools for their own needs, the production of energy, steam, compressed air for their own production; production of spare parts for own equipment and its repair, etc. The composition and complexity of auxiliary processes depend on the characteristics of the main ones and the composition of the material and technical base of the enterprise. An increase in the range, diversity and complexity of the finished product, an increase in the technical equipment of production necessitate the expansion of the composition of auxiliary processes: the manufacture of models and special devices, the development of the energy sector, and an increase in the volume of work of the repair shop.
The main trend in the organization of service processes is the maximum combination with the main processes and an increase in the level of their mechanization and automation. This approach allows for automatic control during the main processing, continuous movement of objects of labor through the technological process, continuous automated transfer of objects of labor to workplaces, etc.
A feature of modern tools is the organic inclusion in their composition, along with the working, motor and transmission control mechanism. This is typical for automated production lines, machines with numerical program management etc. Management influences fit into the production process especially organically during the introduction of automated process control systems and the use of microprocessor technology. Increasing the level of automation of production and, in particular, the widespread use of robotics brings management processes closer to production, organically includes them in the main production process, increasing its flexibility and reliability.
By the nature of the impact on the object of labor, the following processes are distinguished:
technological, during which the object of labor changes under the influence of living labor;
natural, when the physical state of the object of labor changes under the influence of the forces of nature (they represent a break in the labor process).
In modern conditions, the share of natural processes is significantly reduced, since in order to intensify production, they are successively transferred to technological ones.
Technological production processes are classified according to the methods of converting objects of labor into a finished product into: mechanical, chemical, assembly and dismantling (assembly and disassembly) and conservation (lubrication, painting, packaging, etc.). This grouping serves as the basis for determining the composition of equipment, methods of maintenance and its spatial planning.
According to the forms of interconnection with related processes, they are distinguished: analytical, when, as a result of primary processing (dismemberment) of complex raw materials (oil, ore, milk, etc.), various products are obtained that enter various subsequent processing processes;
synthetic, combining semi-finished products from different processes into a single product;
direct, creating one type of semi-finished or finished product from one type of material.
The predominance of one or another type of process depends on the characteristics of the feedstock and the finished product, i.e., on the industry specifics of production. Analytical processes are typical for the oil refining and chemical industries, synthetic processes for mechanical engineering, direct processes for simple low-volume production processes (for example, brick production).
According to the degree of continuity, there are: continuous and discrete (breakthrough) processes. By the nature of the equipment used, there are: hardware (closed) processes, when the technological process is carried out in special units (apparatuses, baths, furnaces), and the function of the worker is to manage and maintain them; open (local) processes, when a worker processes objects of labor using a set of tools and mechanisms.
According to the level of mechanization, it is customary to distinguish:
manual processes performed without the use of machines, mechanisms and mechanized tools;
machine-manual, performed with the help of machines and mechanisms with the obligatory participation of the worker, for example, processing a part on a universal lathe;
machine, carried out on machines, machine tools and mechanisms with limited participation of the worker;
automated, carried out on automatic machines, where the worker controls and manages the course of production; complexly automated, in which, along with automatic production, automatic operational control is carried out.
According to the scale of production of homogeneous products, processes are distinguished
mass - with a large scale of production of homogeneous products; serial - with a wide range of constantly repeating types of products, when several operations are assigned to jobs, performed in a certain sequence; part of the work can be performed continuously, part - for several months a year; the composition of the processes is repetitive;
individual - with a constantly changing product range, when jobs are loaded with various operations performed without any specific alternation; a large proportion of the processes is unique in this case. processes are not repeated.
Pilot production occupies a special place in the production process, where the design and manufacturing technology of new, newly mastered products are worked out.
In a complex dynamic modern production, it is almost impossible to find an enterprise with one type of production. As a rule, at the same enterprise, and especially in an association, there are shops and sections of mass production where standard and unified elements of products and semi-finished products are produced, and serial sections where semi-finished products of limited use are manufactured. At the same time, more and more often there is a need to form individual production sites, where special parts of the product are made, reflecting its individual characteristics and related to the fulfillment of the requirements of a special order. Thus, within the framework of one production link, all types of production take place, which determines the particular complexity of their combination in the organization process.
The spatial view of the organization provides a rational division of production into partial processes and their assignment to individual production links, determining their relationship and location on the territory of the enterprise. This work is carried out most fully in the process of designing and substantiating the organizational structures of production links. However, it is carried out as the accumulation of changes occurring in production. A lot of work on the spatial organization of production is carried out in the creation of production associations, the expansion and reconstruction of enterprises, and the respecialization of production. The spatial organization of production is the static side of organizational work.
The most difficult is the time section of the organization of production. It includes determining the duration of the production cycle for manufacturing a product, the sequence of performing partial production processes, the sequence of launching and releasing various types of products, etc.
Principles of organization of production
A rational organization of production must meet a number of requirements, be based on certain principles:
Proportionality in the organization of production implies compliance with the throughput (relative productivity per unit of time) of all departments of the enterprise - workshops, sections, individual jobs for the production of finished products. The degree of proportionality of production a can be characterized by the deviation of the throughput (capacity) of each stage from the planned output rhythm:
where m is the number of redistributions or stages of product manufacturing; h is the throughput of individual stages; h2 - the planned rhythm of output (output according to the plan).
The proportionality of production eliminates the overload of some sections, i.e., the emergence of "bottlenecks", and the underutilization of capacities in other links, is a prerequisite for the uniform operation of the enterprise and ensures an uninterrupted course of production.
The basis for maintaining proportionality is the correct design of the enterprise, the optimal combination of the main and auxiliary production links. However, with the modern pace of production renewal, the rapid change in the range of manufactured products and the complex cooperation of production links, the task of maintaining the proportionality of production becomes constant. With the change in production, the relationship between production links, the loading of individual redistributions change. The re-equipment of certain divisions of production changes the established proportions in production and requires an increase in the capacity of adjacent sections.
One of the methods for maintaining proportionality in production is operational scheduling, which allows you to develop tasks for each production link, taking into account, on the one hand, the integrated output of products, and on the other, the fullest use of the capabilities of the production apparatus. In this case, the work of maintaining proportionality coincides with the planning of the rhythm of production.
Proportionality in production is also supported by the timely replacement of tools, an increase in the level of mechanization and automation of production, through changes in production technology, etc. This requires a systematic approach to solving the issues of reconstruction and technical re-equipment of production, planning the development and launch of new production capacities.
The complication of products, the use of semi-automatic and automatic equipment, the deepening of the division of labor increases the number of parallel processes for the manufacture of one product, the organic combination of which must be ensured, that is, it supplements proportionality with the principle of parallelism. Parallelism refers to the simultaneous execution of individual parts of the production process in relation to different parts of the total batch of parts. The wider the scope of work, the shorter, other things being equal, the duration of production. Parallelism is implemented at all levels of the organization. At the workplace, parallelism is ensured by improving the structure of the technological operation, and primarily by technological concentration, accompanied by multi-tool or multi-subject processing. Parallelism in the execution of the main and auxiliary elements of the operation consists in combining the time of machine processing with the time of setting up for removal of parts, control measurements, loading and unloading the apparatus with the main technological process, etc. -mounting operations on the same or different objects.
The level of parallelism of the production process can be characterized using the parallelism coefficient Kn, calculated as the ratio of the duration of the production cycle with the parallel movement of objects of labor Tpr.ts and its actual duration Tts:
where n is the number of redistributions.
In the context of a complex multi-link process of manufacturing products, the continuity of production is becoming increasingly important, which ensures the acceleration of the turnover of funds. Increasing continuity is the most important direction of production intensification. At the workplace, it is achieved in the process of performing each operation by reducing auxiliary time (intraoperative breaks), at the site and in the workshop when transferring a semi-finished product from one workplace to another (interoperational breaks) and at the enterprise as a whole, minimizing interruptions in order to maximize acceleration of the turnover of material and energy resources (inter-workshop laying).
The continuity of work within the operation is ensured primarily by the improvement of labor tools - the introduction of automatic changeover, automation of auxiliary processes, the use of special equipment and devices.
The reduction of interoperational breaks is associated with the choice of the most rational methods for combining and coordinating partial processes in time. One of the prerequisites for reducing inter-operational breaks is the use of continuous vehicles; the use of a rigidly interconnected system of machines and mechanisms in the production process, the use of rotary lines. The degree of continuity of the production process can be characterized by the continuity coefficient Kn, calculated as the ratio of the duration of the technological part of the production cycle Tts.tech and the duration of the full production cycle Tts:
where m is the total number of redistributions.
Continuity of production is considered in two aspects: continuous participation in the production process of objects of labor - raw materials and semi-finished products and continuous loading of equipment and rational use of working time. Ensuring the continuity of the movement of objects of labor, at the same time it is necessary to minimize equipment stops for readjustment, waiting for the receipt of materials, etc. This requires an increase in the uniformity of the work performed at each workplace, as well as the use of quick-change equipment (programmed machines), copying machine tools, etc.
One of the prerequisites for the continuity of production is the directness in the organization of the production process, which is the provision of the shortest path for the product to pass through all stages and operations of the production process, from the launch of raw materials into production to the release of finished products. Straightness is characterized by the coefficient Kpr, representing the ratio of the duration of transport operations Ttr to the total duration of the production cycle Tc:
where j is the number of transport operations.
In accordance with this requirement, the mutual arrangement of buildings and structures on the territory of the enterprise, as well as the placement of the main workshops in them, must comply with the requirements of the production process. The flow of materials, semi-finished products and products must be forward and shortest, without counter and return movements. Auxiliary workshops and warehouses should be located as close as possible to the main workshops they serve.
To ensure the full use of equipment, material and energy resources and working time, the rhythm of production, which is the fundamental principle of its organization, is important.
The principle of rhythm implies a uniform output and a rhythmic course of production. The level of rhythm can be characterized by the coefficient Kp, which is defined as the sum of negative deviations of the achieved output from the given plan
where A is the amount of daily underdelivered products; n is the duration of the planning period, days; P - planned output.
Uniform output means the production of the same or gradually increasing quantity of products at regular intervals. The rhythm of production is expressed in the repetition at regular intervals of private production processes at all stages of production and "the implementation at each workplace at equal intervals of the same amount of work, the content of which, depending on the method of organizing workplaces, may be the same or different.
The rhythm of production is one of the main prerequisites for the rational use of all its elements. With rhythmic work, the equipment is fully loaded, its normal operation is ensured, the use of material and energy resources and working hours is improved.
Ensuring rhythmic work is mandatory for all divisions of production - the main, service and auxiliary shops, logistics. Irregular work of each link leads to disruption of the normal course of production.
The order of repetition of the production process is determined by production rhythms. It is necessary to distinguish between the rhythm of output (at the end of the process), operational (intermediate) rhythms, as well as the rhythm of launch (at the beginning of the process). Leading is the rhythm of production. It can be long-term sustainable only if operating rhythms are observed at all workplaces. The methods of organizing rhythmic production depend on the specialization of the enterprise, the nature of the manufactured products and the level of organization of production. Rhythm is ensured by the organization of work in all departments of the enterprise, as well as its timely preparation and comprehensive maintenance.
The current level of scientific and technological progress implies compliance with the flexibility of the organization of production. The traditional principles of production organization are focused on the sustainable nature of production - a stable product range, special types of equipment, etc. In the context of a rapid renewal of the product range, production technology is changing. Meanwhile, the rapid change of equipment, the restructuring of its layout would cause unreasonably high costs, and this would be a brake on technical progress; also impossible to change often production structure(spatial organization of links). This put forward a new requirement for the organization of production - flexibility. In the element-by-element section, this means, first of all, a quick changeover of the equipment. Advances in microelectronics have created a technique capable of a wide range of uses and performing automatic self-adjustment if necessary.
Wide opportunities for increasing the flexibility of the organization of production are provided by the use of standard processes for the implementation of individual stages of production. The construction of variable production lines is well known, on which various products can be manufactured without their restructuring. So, now at the shoe factory on the same production line, various models of women's shoes are made with the same method of attaching the bottom; on auto-assembly conveyor lines, without readjustment, machines are assembled not only in different colors, but also in modifications. It is effective to create flexible automated productions based on the use of robots and microprocessor technology. Great opportunities in this regard are provided by the standardization of semi-finished products. Under such conditions, when switching to the production of new products or mastering new processes, there is no need to restructure all partial processes and production links.
One of the most important principles modern organization production is its complexity, cross-cutting nature. Modern processes the production of products is characterized by splicing and interweaving of the main, auxiliary and service processes, while auxiliary and service processes occupy an increasing place in the overall production cycle. This is due to the well-known lag in mechanization and automation of production maintenance in comparison with the equipment of the main production processes. Under these conditions, it becomes increasingly necessary to regulate the technology and organization of the implementation of not only the main, but also auxiliary and service processes of production.
Bibliography
For the preparation of this work, materials from the site /
Main are those production processes during which raw materials and materials are converted into finished products.
Auxiliary processes are separate parts of the production process, which can often be separated into independent enterprises. Auxiliary processes are aimed at manufacturing products and providing services necessary for the main production. These include the manufacture of tools, technological equipment and spare parts, equipment repair, etc.
Service production processes ensure the creation of normal conditions for the flow of the main and auxiliary production processes. They do not have their own object of labor and proceed, as a rule, sequentially with the main and auxiliary processes, interspersed with them (transportation of raw materials and finished products, their storage, quality control).
The main production processes in the main workshops (sections) of the enterprise form its main production. Auxiliary and service production processes - respectively in auxiliary and service shops - form an auxiliary economy. The different role of production processes in the overall production process determines the differences in the management mechanisms of various types of production units.
Question
fixed assets – these are material and material values (instruments of labor) that repeatedly participate in the production process, do not change their natural material form and transfer their value to finished products in parts as they wear out.
The fixed assets include:
Basic production assets;
Basic non-production assets;
Intangible assets.
An item of property, plant and equipment should be recognized as an asset when:
It is highly probable that the entity will receive the future economic benefits associated with the asset;
The cost of an asset to an enterprise can be estimated reliably.
Fixed assets often make up the bulk of all the assets of an enterprise, and therefore are of great importance for representing its financial position. Moreover, defining a cost as an asset or an expense can have a significant impact on an entity's reported performance.
In determining whether an item of property, plant and equipment meets the first recognition condition, an entity must assess the likelihood of future economic benefits based on the facts available at the time of initial recognition. Whether it is reasonably probable that these economic benefits will be received requires certainty that the entity will receive the benefits associated with the asset and will bear the related risks. Such certainty usually exists only when the benefits and risks have been transferred to the enterprise. Up to this point, the acquisition of the asset can usually be canceled without significant penalties, and therefore the asset is not recognised.
The second recognition condition is usually easily satisfied because the exchange transaction that indicates the purchase of the asset reveals its value.
Basic production assets- these are means of labor that repeatedly participate in the production process, performing qualitatively different functions. Gradually wearing out, they transfer their value to the created product in parts over a number of years in the form of depreciation. They do not include labor instruments that have not been put into operation, low-value (worth less than 1 thousand rubles, regardless of the service life) and wearing out (service life up to one year, regardless of their cost) items.
The main production assets determine the potential for the output of products (works, services), the technical and economic level and production efficiency and serve as the basis for calculating production capacity of the enterprise.
Fixed non-productive assets- these are objects of long-term use that operate in the non-productive sphere, that is, they are intended for the purposes of non-productive consumption. They retain their natural form and lose their value bit by bit as they are consumed. These include buildings and structures of a non-industrial nature, household inventory of the enterprise's housing and communal services, and other objects of the socio-cultural sphere.
These funds are not involved in the production process, so their value is not transferred to finished products (works, services). Their ever-increasing wear and tear is compensated by fund social development enterprises.
Active part of fixed production assets- this is an integral and leading part of fixed production assets, which serves as the basis for assessing the technical level of production capacities. In general, for enterprises (without taking into account industry specifics), the active part of fixed production assets includes transmission devices, power machines and equipment, working machines and equipment, etc.
The passive part of fixed production assets- this is an auxiliary part of the main production assets (buildings, structures, etc.), which ensures the process of operation of active elements.
Thus, equipment is an active component of fixed production assets, including tools used to directly affect the objects of labor. Distinguish between available, installed and actually operating equipment. Structures are a passive component of fixed production assets, including engineering and construction facilities necessary for the implementation of the production process and not associated with a change in the objects of labor.
Intangible assets- objects that do not have properties, but are included in the assets of the enterprise and usually require gradual depreciation over the period of their use.
Intangible assets can be valued in monetary terms and used to generate income. The value of intangible assets is often used to assess the reputation and stability of an enterprise and organization (for example, when developing investment programs or purchasing).
Intangible assets include, for example, patents, licenses, technical developments, software products and other intellectual property. Trademarks, owner privileges and other rights are also classified as intangible assets.
Question
Fixed assets are accounted for in physical and cost terms.
Fixed asset valuation methods:
At original cost- this is the sum of the actual costs of the organization for the acquisition, delivery and bringing to working condition of fixed assets.
Initial cost– is the actual cost of creating fixed assets. At historical cost, fixed assets are accounted for and valued at the prices of the years in which they were created.
When buying or creating or building, the initial amount is formed by the aggregate of the actual costs of acquiring or creating. In case of receipt in the form of a contribution to the authorized capital, the initial cost is established according to the assessment agreed by the founders. If the objects are received free of charge, the current market price of similar objects is recognized as the initial one.
In addition, in all cases, when forming the initial amount, the costs of delivery, storage and installation, as well as other costs directly related to the implementation of the object, are taken into account.
In the future, the initial cost, as a rule, remains unchanged. A change in the initial amount may occur in the process of its clarification during revaluation or carrying out activities that significantly change the state of the object. At the same time, such a change can be either an increase, in cases of major repairs or modernization, or a decrease in case of partial liquidation.
For residual value.
residual value – is the cost not yet transferred to the finished product. The residual value is determined as the difference between the original (replacement) cost and the amount of accrued depreciation.
Thus, the residual valuation of the object reflects the share of the value of the fixed asset that has not yet been transferred to the manufactured product at the current moment.
In cases of reconstruction, modernization, major repairs, completion of fixed assets, there is an increase in their residual value in the amount calculated by the sums of the costs of these activities.
16 question
According to the source of formation, working capital is divided into own, borrowed and attracted.
Source of formation own working capital is the authorized fund or authorized capital. Part of the funds invested by the founders in these funds is directed to cover the constant need for the minimum required production stocks of inventory and production costs.
Own funds play a major role in the activities of the enterprise, since they provide its property and operational independence, allow them to freely maneuver in order to increase the efficiency of commercial activities, determine the financial stability of the enterprise.
To reduce the overall need of the enterprise for its own working capital, as well as to stimulate their effective use, it is advisable to attract borrowed money.Borrowed funds are mainly short-term bank loans, with the help of which temporary additional needs for working capital are satisfied.
Attracted called funds temporarily used in circulation. These are funds that do not belong to the enterprise, but are constantly in its circulation. Such funds serve as a source of formation of working capital in the amount of their minimum balance.
Question
Depreciation
–
this is the process of transferring the value of fixed assets to finished products and recovering this value in the process of selling products.
Depreciation deductions –
it monetary value the amount of depreciation, which should correspond to the degree of depreciation of fixed assets. Depreciation charges are included in the cost of production.
The cost of fixed assets of enterprises is repaid by accruing depreciation and writing off to production costs during the standard period of their useful life in accordance with the norms approved in accordance with the procedure established by law.
Depreciation rates are expressed as a percentage of the book value certain groups fixed assets. Most widely, these norms are differentiated by machinery and equipment, not only by their types, but also by the types of work performed by these machines and equipment, and by industry. Therefore, increased or reduced depreciation values are applied, which are established using correction factors for depreciation rates.
The straight-line depreciation method is applied when the asset generates the same income during the entire period of operation. In cases where there is a steady tendency to reduce the efficiency of the operation of the object over time, and consequently, the profit from its use decreases, it is necessary to use the method of decreasing depreciation, based on the fact that depreciation is calculated based on the residual value of the asset at the beginning of the reporting year and depreciation rates calculated on the basis of the standard service life of this object.
In order to create conditions for the introduction into production of the achievements of scientific and technological progress (in particular, new technology) enterprises have the right to apply the method of accelerated depreciation of the active part of fixed assets. At the same time, the accrual of depreciation at the beginning of the life of the object is accelerated (compared to the straight-line depreciation method). As the service life expires, depreciation charges decrease. This allows the enterprise in conditions of inflation to quickly recoup the costs incurred and direct them to the renewal of fixed production assets.
The list of high-tech industries and efficient types of machinery and equipment for which accelerated depreciation is applied is established by the federal executive authorities.
Each enterprise independently decides on the use of depreciation amounts, directing them to the introduction of new technology, to the technical development of production, to the reproduction and improvement of its fixed assets.
In practice, the following methods of calculating depreciation are most widely used: a) linear depreciation. This approach to determining annual depreciation assumes uniform depreciation of fixed assets; b) depreciation at residual value.
According to a number of economists, the cost of fixed capital (fixed assets) of an enterprise falls most strongly in the first years of its use. The annual depreciation of a unit of fixed assets under this approach is calculated as a fixed percentage of the residual value of funds.
In practice, sometimes a mixed depreciation method is used, which is a combination of both of these methods. It is based on the fact that after repayment of a certain part of the difference between the initial and residual value of fixed assets by the degressive method, the straight-line method is applied to the remaining part of the cost.
Question
The economic result of accelerating the turnover of working capital is release, reducing the need for working capital in connection with the improvement of their use.
The release of working capital can be absolute and relative.
Absolute Release reflects a direct decrease in the need for working capital.
Relative release shows the change in both the value of working capital and the volume of sales.
Absolute release takes place in cases where the actual balances of working capital are less than the standard or balances of the previous period while maintaining or exceeding the sales volume for the analyzed period, and relative release - when the acceleration of their turnover occurs simultaneously with the growth in output, and the growth rate of production ahead of the growth rate of working capital balances.
Working capital turnover ratio determines the efficiency of the enterprise not in terms of profitability, but in terms of the intensity of the use of working capital (assets). The coefficient shows how many times for the selected period (year, month, quarter) working capital is turned over.
The coefficient value is directly related:
With the duration of the production cycle;
Personnel qualifications;
Type of activity of the enterprise;
The pace of production.
The calculation formula is as follows:
Working Capital Turnover Ratio = Sales Revenue/Current Assets
Question
working capital ( working capital) - these are the assets of an enterprise that are renewed with a certain regularity to ensure current activities, investments in which are turned over at least once during a year or one production cycle.
As currently adopted in national economy Classification as part of the current assets of industry, the following groups are distinguished:
1) working capital;
2) circulation funds.
Revolving production assets of enterprises consist of three parts:
1. Production stocks;
2. Work in progress and semi-finished products of own production;
3. Deferred expenses.
Industrial stocks are objects of labor prepared for launch into the production process; they consist of raw materials, basic and auxiliary materials, fuel, fuel, purchased semi-finished products and components, containers and packaging materials, spare parts for the current repair of fixed assets. The size of these reserves is set in such a way as to ensure uninterrupted and rhythmic work. Usually distinguish current, preparatory and insurance stocks. The current stock is intended to ensure the uninterrupted course of the production process between two successive deliveries of raw materials, materials, purchased products and semi-finished products. A preparatory stock is required at the time of preparing materials for production consumption. The safety stock is designed to ensure an uninterrupted production process in case of deviations from the accepted delivery intervals.
Work-in-progress and semi-finished products of own production are objects of labor that have entered the production process: materials, parts, assemblies and products that are in the process of processing or assembly, as well as semi-finished products of own production that have not been fully completed by production in some workshops of the enterprise and are subject to further processing in other departments of the same company.
Deferred expenses are intangible elements of working capital, including the costs of preparing and developing new products that are produced in a given period (quarter, year), but are attributed to products of the future period (for example, the costs of designing and developing technology for new types of products, for rearrangement of equipment, marketing, etc.).
Circulating production assets in their movement are also associated with circulation funds that serve the sphere of circulation. They include finished products in warehouses, goods in transit, cash and funds in settlements with consumers of products, in particular accounts receivable. The totality of the enterprise's funds intended for the formation of working capital and circulation funds constitute the working capital of the enterprise.
The circulation funds consist of four groups:
Finished products in warehouses (in containers) of enterprises;
Goods in transit (shipped);
Cash on the current account in the bank, in letters of credit or in the cash desk of the enterprise;
Funds in settlements with suppliers and buyers.
The structure of working capital at the enterprise shows the share of individual elements in the total amount of funds. In the production structure, the ratio of circulating production assets and circulation funds is on average 4:1.
The structure of working capital at enterprises of various industries is not the same and depends on many factors:
enterprise specifics. At enterprises with a long production cycle (for example, in shipbuilding), the share of work in progress is large; mining enterprises have a large share of deferred expenses. At those enterprises in which the production process is fleeting, as a rule, there is a large proportion of inventories;
the quality of the finished product. If the enterprise produces low-quality products that are not in demand among buyers, then the share of finished products in warehouses increases sharply;
the level of concentration, specialization, cooperation and combination of production;
acceleration of scientific and technological progress. This factor affects the structure of working capital in many ways and practically on the ratio of all elements. If the enterprise introduces fuel-saving equipment and technology, non-waste production, then this immediately affects the decrease in the share of inventories in the structure of working capital.
Influence the structure of working capital and other factors. It must be borne in mind that some factors are long-term in nature, while others are short-term.
Question
Material utilization rate - it is one of the characteristics of the manufacturing process. It represents the amount of material (volume or mass) in the finished product divided by the total amount of material used to manufacture the product.
The material utilization ratio reflects the efficiency (including economic) of production, although it does not take into account such factors as the quality of the finished product, the possibility of processing or reusing waste, etc.
The closer this coefficient is to unity, the more rationally the normalized material is spent. Since the coefficient of use of materials is the reciprocal of the coefficient of waste and losses, its increase is achieved mainly through the implementation of measures that ensure the reduction of other elements of the norm. At the same time, the progressiveness of the standards is also influenced by the reduction in the final consumption of materials due to the implementation of measures to improve the design of products and reduce their weight.
Question
Innovation- this is the reproduction of fixed assets, based on the achievements of science and technology, which consists in the construction of new, reconstruction and technical re-equipment of existing enterprises.
Investments– it is a long-term investment of capital with the aim of making a profit. In a narrower sense, investment means capital investments . Distinguish between financial and real investments. TO financial investment includes the acquisition of securities, shares, bonds, investing money in deposit accounts in banks at interest, etc. Real investment is an investment in capital construction.
The financial resources of enterprises intended for investment are directed to achieve the following goals:
Development and release of new products;
Technical re-equipment;
Expansion of production;
Reconstruction;
New construction.
However, it is impossible to clearly divide investments by goals. The distinction is made, as a rule, in the dominant direction.
It is most profitable for enterprises to concentrate their material, financial and labor resources primarily on the technical re-equipment and reconstruction of existing enterprises. New construction is expedient only for accelerating the development of the most promising and developing products and branches of production, as well as for mastering new machinery and technology.
Technical re-equipment of an enterprise or its division- this is the replacement of old production equipment and technology with a new one, with higher technical and economic indicators, without expanding the production area.
Expansion of existing enterprises is an investment to increase production through the construction of new additional workshops and other units. As a rule, it is carried out on a new technical basis and contributes to an increase in the technical level of production.
TO reconstruction include measures related both to the replacement of obsolete and worn-out machines and equipment, and to the improvement and restructuring of buildings and structures. The reconstruction is aimed at increasing the technical level of production and products and contributes to a faster development of capacities.
During the technical re-equipment and reconstruction of the enterprise, mainly the active part of fixed assets is updated without significant costs for the construction of buildings and structures.
With expansion and new construction, the structure of capital investments is less efficient than with reconstruction and technical re-equipment. A large share of investments is spent on the construction of buildings and structures.
Investment in manufacturing starts with a project. Project- this is the idea of an event (event), a description of the idea and a plan for its implementation. The idea is set out in project task and contains the final task and restrictions on:
Terms of development and implementation of the project;
Costs for the implementation of the project by stages;
Characteristics, quality and volume of the project product.
The intention is described in technical documentation, including:
General description of the final product and its characteristics;
Working documentation: a detailed, accurate and unambiguous description of the final product and its parts, a detailed and step-by-step description of the technology of the process of organizing the production of the final product.
The implementation plan specifies:
The timing of the project as a whole and by stages;
Project executors in general and by sections;
Costs for the implementation of the project by stages, the cost structure as a whole;
Execution control system.
As a rule, the plan consists of three sections:
Plan for the preparation of technical documentation;
Plan of construction and installation works;
Plan of technical and economic preparation of production.
Innovations, including mastering the production of new products, the introduction of new technologies, machinery and equipment, are carried out on the basis of separate plans.
Question
Coefficient of increase in costs in work in progress Kz characterizes the degree of readiness of products that are in work in progress and is determined in general terms by the ratio of the sum of production costs to work in progress (i.e., the cost of work in progress) Sz to the planned factory cost of this product Spfz:
Kz \u003d Sz / Spfz
Under the condition of a uniform increase in costs, this coefficient is usually determined by the following formula:
Kz \u003d (Ce + 0.5 Cpp) / (Ce + Cpp)
where Se- one-time (initial) costs incurred at the beginning of the production process, rubles;
Spp- other subsequent costs for the production of the product, rub.
In industries that are characterized by an uneven increase in costs, the following formula is used when calculating this coefficient:
Kz \u003d (ΣCi + Sd + 0.5Sp) / (Sp * Tc)
where ΣС i- the cost of manufacturing the product produced for the first, second, i-th period time (day, decade, etc.) on a cumulative basis (excluding the costs of the penultimate period), rubles;
Sd- expenses incurred for the penultimate day (decade, month) on an accrual basis, rubles;
sp- planned total cost of the product, rub.;
Tts- duration of the production cycle, days.
Question
The future success of the company largely depends on how accurately the economic effect of the investment project (IP) is calculated. At the same time, one of the most challenging tasks is the correct estimate of the expected cash flow. If it is calculated incorrectly, then any IP assessment method will give an incorrect result, due to which an effective project can be rejected as unprofitable, and an economically unprofitable one is taken as super-profitable. That is why it is important to correctly plan the company's cash flow.
Under the cash flow of the investment project understand the receipts and payments of funds related exclusively to the implementation of this project. Project cash flows do not include cash flows arising from the current activities of the enterprise.
Investment project cash flow - this is the time dependence of cash receipts (inflows) and payments (outflows) during the implementation of the project, determined for the entire billing period. The effectiveness of the IP is evaluated during the billing period, covering the time interval from the start of the project to its termination. The calculation period is divided into steps - segments within which the data used to evaluate financial performance is aggregated. At each step, the value of the cash flow is characterized by: - an inflow equal to the amount of cash receipts (or results in value terms) at this step; - outflow equal to payments at this step; - balance (effect) equal to the difference between inflow and outflow. Cash flow usually consists of flows from individual activities: a) cash flow from operating activities; b) cash flow from investment activities; c) cash flow from financing activities. Cash flow from operating activities includes cash receipts from the sale of goods, works and services, as well as advances from buyers and customers. Payments for raw materials, materials, utility bills, wage payments, paid taxes and fees, etc. are shown as cash outflows. When investing, cash flows associated with the acquisition and sale of long-term property, that is, fixed assets and intangible assets. Financial activities involve cash inflows and outflows from loans, borrowings, securities issues, etc. Net cash flow is the sum of cash flows from operating, investing and financing activities. In other words, it is the difference between the sum of all cash receipts and the sum of all payments for the same period. It is the net cash flows of different periods that are discounted when evaluating the effectiveness of the project. At the initial stage of the project (investment period), cash flows, as a rule, turn out to be negative. This reflects the outflow of resources that occurs in connection with the creation of conditions for subsequent activities (for example, the acquisition of non-current assets and the formation of net working capital). After the completion of the investment and the beginning of the operating period associated with the start of the operation of non-current assets, the amount of cash flow, as a rule, becomes positive. Additional revenue from the sale of products, as well as additional production costs incurred during the implementation of the project, can be both positive and negative values. Technically, the task of investment analysis is to determine what will be the amount of cash flows on a cumulative basis at the end of the established research horizon. In particular, it is fundamentally important whether it will be positive. Cash flows can be expressed in current, forecast and deflated prices. Current prices are prices excluding inflation. Forecast prices are prices that are expected (taking into account inflation) at future calculation steps. Deflated prices are forecast prices reduced to the price level of a fixed point in time by dividing by a common underlying inflation index. Along with cash flows, when evaluating an investment project, the accumulated (cumulative) cash flow is also used. Its characteristics are cumulative inflow, cumulative outflow and cumulative balance (cumulative effect). These indicators are determined at each step of the billing period as the sum of the relevant characteristics of the cash flow for a given and all previous steps.
Question
Design and engineering preparation of production includes the design of new products and the modernization of previously produced ones, as well as the development of a project for the reconstruction and re-equipment of an enterprise or its individual divisions.
The main stages of design and development preparation of production for the development of new and modernization of manufactured products are:
Development of technical specifications;
Development of a technical proposal;
Drawing up a draft design;
Development of a technical project;
Development working documentation and prototypes, installation series for serial and mass production.
Technical task- this is a document containing the initial data for the design of an object. This is an important stage, distinguished from the direct design work, carried out by the developer based on the initial requirements for the products presented by the customer.
Technical Proposal- a set of design documents reflecting the calculations of technical parameters and a feasibility study for the feasibility of developing product documentation based on a technical assignment. Calculations are performed according to various options for possible solutions for their evaluation, taking into account the design and operational features of the developed and existing products.
On development stage draft design design documentation is created, which contains fundamental design solutions that give a general idea of the device and the principle of operation of the product, as well as data that determine the purpose, parameters and overall dimensions of the product.
Technical project should contain final technical solutions that give a complete picture of the device of a new product, and initial data for the development of working documentation. During its development, the general view of the new product is specified, drawings of the main components and assemblies are made, their specifications, installation and assembly diagrams with calculations for strength, rigidity, stability, manufacturability, as well as packaging methods, the possibility of transportation and installation at the place of use, the degree of complexity of manufacturing , ease of use, methods of packaging, expediency and possibility of repair, etc.
Working design documentation is compiled after approval and on the basis of a technical project. The working documentation includes: drawings of all parts and assembly units; schemes of assembly units, complexes, kits; specifications of assembly units, complexes, kits, purchased products; technical conditions; documents regulating the conditions of operation and repair of the machine.
The obligation to fulfill the stages and stages of development of design documentation is established by the terms of reference for development. Implementation of all stages of design preparation of production with obligatory after the prototype has been made, testing a new product is recommended only for more complex design work with a high degree of novelty. For products with a low degree of novelty, a two-stage design is allowed - a technical design and development of working documentation. When modernizing existing designs of machines, equipment, instruments, the stages of draft and technical designs are combined.
Requirements for the design of new and modernization of the main products:
Continuous improvement of product quality - increasing its power, reliability, durability, strength, lightness, improvement of appearance, etc.;
Increasing the level of technological design, which is understood as facilitating the process of manufacturing products and the possibility of using advanced manufacturing methods for a given production volume.
Reducing the cost of new products, achieved by simplifying and improving the design, replacing expensive materials with cheaper ones, reducing operating costs associated with the use of products;
Use of existing standards and unified semi-finished products when designing products.
Question
Technological preparation of production- a set of measures that ensure the technological readiness of production, i.e. the presence at the enterprises of complete sets of design and technological documentation and technological equipment for the implementation of a given volume of output with established technical and economic indicators. At the same time, a set of technological documentation includes a set of documents of technological processes that are necessary and sufficient for their implementation in the manufacture and repair of a product or its components.
Technological preparation of production should include the following stages:
1. Technological analysis of working drawings and their control for the manufacturability of the design of parts and assembly units.
2. Development of progressive technological processes.
3. Designing special tools, technological equipment and equipment for the manufacture of a new product.
4. Implementation of layouts of workshops and production sites with the arrangement of equipment according to the developed technological routes.
5. Alignment, debugging and implementation of technological processes.
6. Calculations of the production capacity of the enterprise.
Technological preparation of production includes the solution of common tasks, grouped according to the following main functions:
Ensuring the manufacturability of the design;
Development of technological processes;
Design and manufacture of technological equipment;
Organization of management of technological preparation.
The degree of detail of technological processes is determined by the type of production. At industrial enterprises, technological documentation includes production standards and consumption standards for raw materials, materials, fuel and energy, product quality control methods, production waste standards, a description of transport routes, a list of work instructions, certification of equipment and tools.
Management of technological preparation of production - the process of developing and implementing measures to ensure the functioning of the CCI and correct the progress of work in the event of deviations.
Technological design begins with the development of route technology, which determines the sequence of the main operations and their assignment in the workshops to specific groups of equipment. According to the route technology, processed types of products are assigned to each workshop and section, equipment, tools, specialty of workers, categories of work and time standards are indicated.
In individual and small-scale production, as well as in enterprises with relatively simple technology, the development of technological processes is usually limited to route technology. In mass and large-scale production, after the route one, a more detailed sub-operational technology is developed, which contains detailed description all technological operations.
When developing a technological process, an important task is the choice of economically effective ways product manufacturing. The chosen production technology should provide high quality of production, increase in labor productivity and the lowest cost of products in comparison with other options.
Question
Modernization- it is a means of reducing and overcoming the threats of bankruptcy, unprofitability, insolvency; a means of survival in the growing competitive struggle, which at the new stage of market transformation manifests itself as a necessary and dictating form of the functioning of enterprises.
Usually the concept of "modernization" is interpreted in connection with the change and improvement of the technical parameters of any machines, equipment, instruments or the production fleet as a whole.
The problem is revealed - the withdrawal of the bulk of enterprises from the crisis, primarily overcoming insolvency and unprofitability. At the same time, the main task is as follows: the formation of a modern type of enterprise based on advanced technology and technology, using effective systems of marketing, management, information support, and solving social problems.
The policy of modernization of enterprises and industrial complexes should solve the following problems:
1) determination of goals, priorities and directions of modernization;
2) formation of governing and regulatory mechanisms;
3) providing a resource base for modernization.
The problem of the efficiency of enterprises should be considered based on the solution of two problems:
1) overcoming the existing crisis in the real sector;
2) the implementation of the modernization of enterprises as one of the main directions for increasing the efficiency of production.
The enterprise, as a single system to be modernized, is formed by the circulation and circulation of capital. Capital is the unity of the advanced value and material content (use value), which is based on the means of production and labor force, functioning as a factor of production. In the course of its movement, timing and nature of turnover, capital is divided into fixed and circulating capital. It should be noted that it is the renewal of fixed capital that is the basis of the entire process of enterprise modernization.
Modernization of an enterprise as an integral system can be carried out structurally, in the form of a systemic modernization of certain properties and subsystems. The structural-system approach to the modernization of the enterprise as a whole can be expressed in the form of interacting and interrelated main directions of modernization of the enterprise.
The basic direction of the modernization of enterprises is the renewal of fixed assets, the introduction of new technologies and the intensification of innovative activities of both the enterprises themselves and research and design institutions working for the real sector. The main task is to restore and develop the material base for the economic and technical modernization of production, which are the branches of machine-building, metallurgical and other industries, as well as those related to "new" corporations.
The implementation of a set of directions for the modernization of an enterprise as a whole entity requires a single strategic modernization program for each functioning enterprise. The existing potential of the enterprise should not be destroyed, but using systemic methods of its renewal, it will ensure the transition to new technologies for production, management and budgeting. The modernization of enterprises requires a huge organizational activity, including the development of strategies for the modernization of specific industries and complexes.
It is proposed to put the principle at the basis of the modernization process: a more efficient management system must be achieved at one's own expense and with one's own efforts. That is, at the level of enterprises, it is proposed to carry out modernization on their own, without financial assistance from the state.
Thus, the modernization of enterprises in the conditions of market transformations is implemented with the help of the state and determines the priorities and directions for the modernization of both the entire system of enterprises and production complexes, industries, and individual enterprises. Currently, there is a need to determine and implement the priorities of industrial development, on which the efforts of the state and business will be focused, subsequently determining the competitiveness and efficiency of the Russian economy at the present stage of development.
The investment cycle of production modernization includes the following phases:
- pre-investment;
– investment;
- operational (production).
The pre-investment phase consists:
In the formation of an investment plan and its analysis;
In the feasibility study of the investment project and the preparation of its business plan;
Search for potential investors and sources of financing for an investment project;
Legal registration of the investment project;
Conclusion of contracts with customers (contractors).
If the pre-investment phase is the period of planning and organizing the implementation of an investment project, then investment phase is its implementation, the formation of permanent assets of the project, which includes:
Development of design and estimate documentation;
Order and supply of new technological equipment;
Its implementation;
Staff training and other costs.
Operational (production) phase starts from the moment of commissioning of the main equipment and includes the commissioning of the enterprise, reaching its design capacity, as well as the production and marketing of products of the planned quality and quantity. Obviously, the efficiency of the investment project will be the higher, the shorter the pre-investment and investment phases and the longer the operational ones.
Question
Methods for studying the cost of working time - these are ways to obtain information about the use of the working time fund, the rationality of performing a production operation in order to increase labor productivity.
The main methods for studying the cost of working time include timing, photography of the working day, photo timing, and the method of momentary observations.
Timing - this is a method of studying the cost of operational time (time to perform an operation) by observing and measuring the duration of individual elements of an operation that are repeated in the production of each product in order to determine the time standards for individual operations. It is used to design a rational composition and structure of an operation, establish their normal duration and develop, on this basis, reasonable time standards.
Working day photo - it is a way of studying the cost of working time by observing and measuring the components of these costs during the whole or part of the working day. The photograph of a working day captures and studies all the costs of working time, all its losses, while timekeeping captures and studies only the elements that make up the operation.
Workday photography goals:
Identification of all time spent during the working day and, on this basis, compiling the actual balance of the employee's working day;
Identification of the causes of unproductive expenditure of working time and, on this basis, the development of technical and organizational measures to eliminate losses and draw up a normal balance of working time;
Obtaining initial data for the regulation of certain categories of working time (preparatory-final, main, etc.);
Determination of the number of workers required to service individual units;
Determination of the number of pieces of equipment serviced by one worker.
Photochronometry - combined study of operations, when both a photograph of the working day and timekeeping are carried out simultaneously in one dimension. It is used to simultaneously determine the structure of time costs and the duration of individual elements of a production operation.
Method of momentary observations - it is a statistical way of obtaining average data on the actual workload of workers and equipment. With the help of momentary observations, the loss of working time by employees, managers and specialists is also studied.
Momentary observations are carried out in the process of bypass. The observer, following a specific route, fixes in the observation list what is happening at a given workplace at the time of his visit. All marks are recorded on the observation sheet. The overall result of shift observation is determined by counting the number of marks (fixing moments) for each workplace. Based on the method of momentary observations for the entire group of jobs, the cost structure of all working time, the nature and proportion of time losses, the degree of equipment use, the magnitude and nature of its downtime, and the employment rates of workers can be identified.
Question
Repair- a set of operations to restore the serviceability or performance of products or their components.
Organization of repair facilities and Maintenance equipment based on system of preventive maintenance (PPR)
PPR system is a set of planned organizational and technical measures for the care, supervision, maintenance and repair of equipment. The measures are of a preventive nature, i.e. after each piece of equipment has worked out a certain amount of time, its preventive inspections and scheduled repairs are carried out: small, medium, capital.
The alternation and frequency of repairs is determined by the purpose of the equipment, its design and repair features, as well as operating conditions. PPR equipment provides for the implementation following works:
- overhaul maintenance;
- periodic inspections;
-periodic scheduled repairs: small, medium, capital.
Overhaul maintenance- is the daily care and supervision of the equipment, adjustments and repairs during its operation without disrupting the production process. It is performed during breaks in the operation of the equipment (during non-working shifts, at the junction of shifts, etc.) by the on-duty personnel of the shop repair service.
Periodic Inspections- inspections, washings, accuracy tests and other preventive operations carried out according to the plan after a certain number of hours worked by the equipment.
Periodic scheduled repairs are divided into small, medium and major repairs.
Small repair- detailed inspection, replacement and replacement of worn parts, identification of parts requiring replacement during the next scheduled repair (medium, major) and drawing up a defective statement for it (repair), checking for accuracy, testing equipment.
Medium repair- detailed inspection, disassembly of individual units, replacement of worn parts, checking for accuracy before disassembly and after repair.
Overhaul- complete disassembly of equipment and components, detailed inspection, washing, wiping, replacement and restoration of parts, checking for technological accuracy of processing, restoration of power, performance according to standards and specifications.
Repair and maintenance of technological equipment at machine-building enterprises is carried out by mechanical repair shops and repair services of shops. Depending on the proportion of work performed by production, mechanical repair shops and shop repair services, there are three forms of repair organization: centralized, decentralized and mixed. At centralized form all types of repairs, and sometimes maintenance, are carried out by the enterprise's mechanical repair shop (RMC). At decentralized they are performed by shop repair bases (CRB). At the same bases, new parts are made and worn parts are restored. At mixed form the most labor-intensive work is carried out at the RMC, and maintenance and current repairs are carried out by the Central District Hospital, by integrated teams of locksmiths assigned to individual sections. With an increase in the share of complex, precision and automatic equipment, with an increase in product quality requirements, there has been a tendency to move from a decentralized form to a mixed one.
Question
Under labor rationing method is understood as a set of techniques for studying and analyzing labor processes, measuring the cost of working time in order to develop labor standards.
In the practice of labor rationing, the following methods are used : total, analytical and microelement.
At summary method the labor rate is established for the labor process or operation as a whole (in total) without their element-by-element study, separation and analysis. Varieties of the total method: experimental (expert), comparative and experimental-statistical rationing of labor.
Experienced labor rationing involves the development of standards based on personal experience, the intuition of the rater, foreman, foreman or other specialists who are well acquainted with the working conditions in these production conditions.
With comparative normalization, the norm for new job is established by analogy with any other work, similar in technology and nature of execution, for which there is already a norm. The essence of experimental-statistical rationing is that the labor rate is determined on the basis of statistical processing of data on the actual daily or shift output by various performers by finding its arithmetic mean.
Analytical Methods rationing provide for the division of the normalized operation into elements, analysis of factors affecting the duration; calculation of the norm of time by elements. The norms established by the analytical method are called technically justified. Analytical methods are divided into two groups:
– analytical and calculation method, which provides for the calculation of the norm based on the use of pre-developed time standards;
– analytical research method rationing, which provides for the establishment of norms by direct observation of the operation at the workplace through photographs of working hours and timing. This method is used when it is necessary: to accumulate initial data to establish time standards; clarify the rules; to study labor methods of work or the reasons for the loss of working time.
Microelement regulation of labor- this is the process of establishing micronorms for individual labor movements, which make up various labor processes or operations. The rationing of microelements - labor movements and actions - is gaining more and more development in mass production. When using this method, the labor process (operation) is divided into movements, actions, techniques. labor movement represents a single movement of the working body of the performer (fingers, hands, feet) when performing a labor action. For example, “reach out”, “grab the semi-finished product with your fingers”, etc. labor action is a set of labor movements performed by an employee without interruption. For example, "take a semi-finished product." Labor reception is a combination labor actions employee, performed continuously and having a private special purpose for performing this operation.
Question
The basis of any production process is human labor, which presupposes the availability of means and objects of labor as a necessary condition.
fixed assets- a part of the property used as a means of labor in the production of products (performance of work, provision of services), or for the management needs of the enterprise for a certain period, or for provision for a fee for temporary possession and use.
It is the simultaneous presence of the listed features that is the basis for classifying the means of labor as fixed assets. If any of the listed features is absent, then such means of labor are classified as working capital. In addition, fixed assets do not include:
Machinery, equipment and other similar items listed as finished products in the warehouses of manufacturing organizations, as goods - in the warehouses of organizations engaged in trading activities;
Items handed over for installation or to be installed, which are in transit;
Capital and financial investments.
In addition to the means of labor, fixed assets also include: capital investments for radical land improvement (drainage, irrigation and other reclamation works); capital investments in leased fixed assets; land plots, objects of nature management (water, subsoil and other natural resources).
3. Organization and management of the production process
3.1. The concept of the production process. Basic principles of the organization of the production process.
The task of the enterprise is to perceive "at the input" factors of production (costs), process them and "at the output" to issue products (result) (Scheme 3.1.). This kind of transformational process is referred to as "production". Its aim is ultimately to improve what is already there, in order to increase the supply of funds available to meet needs.
The production (transformation) process consists in converting costs ("input") into results ("output"); in this case, it is necessary to observe a number of rules of the game.
Scheme 3.1. The main structure of the production transformation process.
Between the costs at the "input" (Input) and the result at the "output" (Output), as well as in parallel with this, numerous actions take place at the enterprise ("tasks are solved"), which only in their unity fully describe the production transformation process (Scheme 3.2). Let us consider here only briefly characterized particular tasks of the production transformation process.
The production transformation process consists of particular tasks of provision (supply), warehousing (storage), product manufacturing, marketing, financing, staff training and the introduction of new technologies, as well as management.
The task of supplying an enterprise includes the purchase or rental (leasing) of means of production, the purchase of raw materials (for enterprises with tangible products), and the hiring of employees.
The task of warehousing (storage) includes all production work that occurs before the actual process of production (manufacturing) of products in connection with the storage of means of production, raw materials and materials, and after it - with the storage and storage of finished products.
In the problem of manufacturing products, we are talking about production work within the production process. At enterprises manufacturing tangible products, they are largely determined by the technological component. In particular, it is necessary to determine when, what products, in what place, using which production factors should be manufactured ("production planning").
Scheme 3.2. Particular tasks of the production transformation process.
The task of marketing products is related to the study of the sales market, the impact on it (for example, through advertising), as well as the sale or leasing of the company's products.
The task of financing is between sales and supply: by selling products, or the result of the production process (Output), money is earned, and by supplying (or ensuring production - Input), money is spent. However, often the outflow and inflow of money are not the same (do not cover each other). Thus, large investments may not be offset by sales revenue. Therefore, a temporary shortage of funds to pay for overdue loans and an excess of funds spent on providing loans (leasing, rent) are typical financing tasks. This also includes, within the framework of "financial management", the receipt of income (profit), as well as the investment of capital in other enterprises through the capital market.
Personnel training and the introduction of new technologies should enable employees to constantly improve their skills, and through this they would be able to introduce and develop the latest technologies in all areas of the enterprise and especially in the field of new products and production technologies.
The task of management (leadership) includes work that covers the preparation and adoption of managerial decisions in order to direct and manage all other production activities in the enterprise. In this regard, accounting at the enterprise (including the annual balance sheet, cost analysis, production statistics, financing) is of particular importance. Accounting must fully include and evaluate all current documents that characterize the production process.
Particular tasks of the production transformation process ("Input" - "Output") and their connection with the value creation process can be considered as a "value chain" that connects the links (suppliers and consumers) located before and after the production process itself (production process).
Including the above - the production process is the process of reproduction of material goods and production relations.
As a process of reproduction of material goods, the production process is a combination of labor processes and natural processes necessary for the manufacture of a certain type of product.
The main elements that determine the labor process, and consequently the production process, are purposeful activity (or labor itself), objects of labor and means of labor.
Expedient activity (or labor itself) is carried out by a person who expends neuromuscular energy to perform various mechanical movements, to monitor and control the impact of tools on labor objects.
The objects of labor are determined by the products that are produced by the enterprise. The main products of machine-building plants are various kinds of products. According to GOST 2.101–68*, a product is any item or set of items of labor to be manufactured at an enterprise. Depending on the purpose, products of the main production and products of auxiliary production are distinguished.
The products of the main production include products intended for marketable products. Auxiliary products should include products intended only for the own needs of the enterprise that manufactures them (for example, a tool of its own production). Products intended for sale, but at the same time used for the company's own needs, should be classified as auxiliary production products in the part in which they are used for their own needs.
There are the following types of products: parts, assembly units, complexes and kits.
In addition, products are divided into: a) unspecified(details) if they do not have constituent parts; b) specified(assembly units, complexes, kits), if they consist of two or more components. Any product (part, assembly unit, complex and kit) can be an integral part.
A detail is an object that cannot be divided into parts without destroying it. A part may consist of several parts (objects) brought into a permanent indivisible state by some method (for example, by welding).
Assembly unit (assembly) - detachable or one-piece pairing of several parts.
Complexes and kits may consist of interconnected assembly units and parts,
Products are characterized by the following qualitative and quantitative parameters.
1. Structural complexity. It depends on the number of parts and assembly units included in the product; this number can vary from a few pieces (simple products) to tens of thousands (complex products).
2. Dimensions and weight. Dimensions can vary from a few millimeters (or even less) to several tens (even hundreds) of meters (for example, ships). The mass of the product depends on the size and, accordingly, can vary from grams (milligrams) to tens (and thousands) of tons From this point of view, all products are divided into small, medium and large.The boundaries of their division depend on the industry of engineering (type of product).
3. Types, brands and sizes of materials used. Number they reach tens (even hundreds) of thousands.
4. Labor intensive processing parts and assembly of the assembly unit of the product as a whole. It can vary from fractions of standard minutes to several thousand standard hours. On this basis, non-labor-intensive (low-labor-intensive) and labor-intensive products are distinguished.
5. The degree of accuracy and roughness of processing parts and assembly accuracy of assembly units and products. In this regard, products are divided into high-precision, precise and low-precision.
6. Specific Gravity standard, normalized and unified parts and assembly units.
7. number manufactured products; it can range from units to millions per year.
Product characteristics largely determine the organization of the production process in space and time.
So, the number of processing and assembly shops or plots and the relationship between them.
The more complex the product, the greater the share of assembly work and assembly sites and workshops in the structure of the enterprise. The size, weight and number of products affect the organization of their assembly; to create one or another type of in-line production; organization of transportation of parts, assembly units and products to workplaces, sections and workshops; largely determine the type of movement in jobs (operations) and the duration of the production cycle.
For large and heavy products, fixed production lines with periodic movement of conveyors are used. Cranes and special vehicles are used for their transportation. Their movement through operations is organized mainly in parallel form. The duration of the production cycle for the manufacture of such products is long, it is sometimes measured in years.
Sometimes it is necessary to organize sections of large, small and medium parts in machine shops.
The need for a combination of certain harvesting and processing sites or workshops depends on the type and brand of processed materials.
In the presence of a large number of blanks from castings and forgings, it is necessary to create foundry shops (iron foundries, steel foundries, non-ferrous castings, and others), forging and pressing (hot and cold pressing) shops. In the manufacture of many blanks from rolled material, procurement sites or workshops will be required. When machining parts made of non-ferrous metals, as a rule, it is necessary to organize separate sections.
The degree of accuracy and cleanliness of processing and assembly affects the composition of equipment and sections, their location.
For the processing of highly precise parts and the assembly of assembly units and products, it is necessary to organize separate sections, since this requires the creation of special sanitary and hygienic conditions.
The composition of equipment, sections and workshops depends on the specific weight of standard, normalized and unified parts and assembly units.
The manufacture of standard and normalized parts, as a rule, is carried out in special areas or in special workshops. For them mass production is organized.
Labor intensity and the number of manufactured products affect the composition and quantity of equipment, workshops and sections, their location, the possibility of organizing mass production, the duration of the production cycle, the amount of work in progress, the cost and other economic indicators of the enterprise. Products, which are not manufactured at this enterprise, but are received in finished form, refer to purchased. They are also called accessories.
Each machine-building plant usually produces several products at the same time, different in design and size. The list of all types of products manufactured by the plant is called nomenclature.
TO means of labor include instruments of production, land, buildings and structures, vehicles. In the composition of the means of labor, the decisive role belongs to equipment, especially working machines.
For each piece of equipment, the manufacturer draws up a passport, which indicates the date of manufacture of the equipment and a complete list of its technical characteristics (processing speed, engine power, allowable forces, maintenance and operation rules, etc.).
The combination of elements of the labor process (labor of a certain qualification, tools and objects of labor) and partial production processes (manufacturing of individual components of the finished product or performing a certain stage in the manufacturing process of products) is carried out according to qualitative and quantitative characteristics and is carried out in several directions. Distinguish element-by-element (functional), spatial and temporal sections of the organization of production.
The element-by-element section of the organization of production is connected with the ordering of equipment, technology, objects of labor, tools and labor itself into a single production process. The organization of production involves the introduction of the most productive machines and equipment that provide a high level of mechanization and automation of the production process; use of high quality and efficient materials; improvement of designs and models of manufactured products; intensification and introduction of more progressive technological regimes.
The main task of the element-by-element organization of production is the correct and rational selection of the composition of equipment, tools, materials, blanks and qualifications of personnel in order to ensure their full use in the production process. The problem of mutual correspondence of the elements of the production process is especially relevant in complex highly mechanized and automated processes with a dynamic range of production.
The combination of partial production processes ensures the spatial and temporal organization of production. The manufacturing process includes many sub-processes aimed at manufacturing the finished product. The classification of production processes is shown in fig. 3.3.
Scheme 3.3. Classification of production processes
According to the role in the overall process of manufacturing finished products, production processes are distinguished:
- basic, aimed at changing the main objects of labor and giving them the properties of finished products; in this case, the partial production process is associated either with the implementation of any stage of processing the object of labor, or with the manufacture of a part of the finished product;
- auxiliary, creating conditions for the normal course of the main production process (manufacturing of tools for the needs of their production, repair of technological equipment, etc.);
- serving, intended for movement (transport processes), storage in anticipation of further processing (warehousing), control (control operations), provision of material, technical and energy resources, etc.;
- managerial, in which decisions are developed and made, regulation and coordination of the course of production, control over the accuracy of the implementation of the program, analysis and accounting of the work carried out; these processes are often intertwined with the course of production processes.
The main processes, depending on the stage of manufacturing the finished product, are divided into procurement, processing, assembly and finishing. Procurement processes, as a rule, are very diverse. For example, in a machine-building plant, they include metal cutting, foundry, forging and pressing operations; at a garment factory - decatering and cutting of fabrics; at a chemical plant - cleaning of raw materials, bringing it to the desired concentration, etc. The products of harvesting processes are used in different processing departments. Processing shops are represented in mechanical engineering by metalworking; in the clothing industry - tailoring; in metallurgy - blast furnace, rolling; in chemical production - by the process of cracking, electrolysis, etc. Assembly and finishing processes in mechanical engineering are represented by assembly and painting; in the textile industry - painting and finishing processes; in sewing - finishing, etc.
The purpose of auxiliary processes is to produce products that are used in the main process, but are not part of the finished product. For example, the manufacture of tools for their own needs, the production of energy, steam, compressed air for their own production; production of spare parts for own equipment and its repair, etc. The composition and complexity of auxiliary processes depend on the characteristics of the main ones and the composition of the material and technical base of the enterprise. An increase in the range, diversity and complexity of the finished product, an increase in the technical equipment of production necessitate the expansion of the composition of auxiliary processes: the manufacture of models and special devices, the development of the energy sector, and an increase in the volume of work of the repair shop.
The main trend in the organization of service processes is the maximum combination with the main processes and an increase in the level of their mechanization and automation. This approach allows for automatic control during the main processing, continuous movement of objects of labor through the technological process, continuous automated transfer of objects of labor to workplaces, etc.
A feature of modern tools is the organic inclusion in their composition, along with the working, motor and transmission control mechanism. This is typical for automated production lines, machine tools with numerical control, etc. Management influences fit into the production process especially organically when introducing automated process control systems and using microprocessor technology. Increasing the level of automation of production and, in particular, the widespread use of robotics brings management processes closer to production, organically includes them in the main production process, increasing its flexibility and reliability.
By the nature of the impact on the object of labor, the following processes are distinguished:
- technological, in during which there is a change in the object of labor under the influence of living labor;
- natural, when the physical state of the object of labor changes under the influence of the forces of nature (they represent a break in the labor process).
In modern conditions, the share of natural processes is significantly reduced, since in order to intensify production, they are successively transferred to technological ones.
Technological production processes are classified according to the methods of converting objects of labor into a finished product into: mechanical, chemical, assembly and dismantling (assembly and disassembly) and conservation (lubrication, painting, packaging, etc.). This grouping serves as the basis for determining the composition of equipment, methods of maintenance and its spatial planning.
According to the forms of interconnection with related processes, there are: analytical, when, as a result of the primary processing (dismemberment) of complex raw materials (oil, ore, milk, etc.), various products are obtained that enter various subsequent processing processes;
- synthetic, carrying out the connection of semi-finished products received from different processes into a single product;
- straight, creating one type of semi-finished or finished product from one type of material.
The predominance of one or another type of process depends on the characteristics of the feedstock and the finished product, i.e., on the industry specifics of production. Analytical processes are typical for the oil refining and chemical industries, synthetic processes for mechanical engineering, direct processes for simple low-volume production processes (for example, brick production).
According to the degree of continuity, there are: continuous and discrete (breakthrough) processes. By the nature of the equipment used allocate: hardware (closed) processes when the technological process is carried out in special units (apparatuses, baths, furnaces), and the function of the worker is to manage and maintain them; open (local) processes, when a worker processes objects of labor using a set of tools and mechanisms.
According to the level of mechanization, it is customary to distinguish:
- manual processes performed without the use of machines, mechanisms and mechanized tools;
- machine-manual, performed with the help of machines and mechanisms with the obligatory participation of a worker, for example, processing a part on a universal lathe;
- machine, carried out on machines, machine tools and mechanisms with limited participation of the worker;
- automated, carried out on automatic machines, where the worker controls and manages the course of production; comprehensively automated, in which, along with automatic production, automatic operational control is carried out.
According to the scale of production of homogeneous products, processes are distinguished
- mass - with a large scale of production of homogeneous products; serial - with a wide range of constantly repeating types of products, when several operations are assigned to jobs, performed in a certain sequence; part of the work can be performed continuously, part - for several months a year; the composition of the processes is repetitive;
- individual - with a constantly changing product range, when jobs are loaded with various operations performed without any specific alternation; a large proportion of the processes is unique in this case. processes are not repeated.
Pilot production occupies a special place in the production process, where the design and manufacturing technology of new, newly mastered products are worked out.
In a complex dynamic modern production, it is almost impossible to find an enterprise with one type of production. As a rule, at the same enterprise, and especially in an association, there are shops and sections of mass production where standard and unified elements of products and semi-finished products are produced, and serial sections where semi-finished products of limited use are manufactured. At the same time, more and more often there is a need to form individual production sites, where special parts of the product are made, reflecting its individual characteristics and related to the fulfillment of the requirements of a special order. Thus, within the framework of one production link, all types of production take place, which determines the particular complexity of their combination in the organization process.
The spatial view of the organization provides a rational division of production into partial processes and their assignment to individual production links, determining their relationship and location on the territory of the enterprise. This work is carried out most fully in the design and justification process. organizational structures production links. However, it is carried out as the accumulation of changes occurring in production. A lot of work on the spatial organization of production is carried out in the creation of production associations, the expansion and reconstruction of enterprises, and the respecialization of production. The spatial organization of production is the static side of organizational work.
The most difficult is time section organization of production. It includes determining the duration of the production cycle for manufacturing a product, the sequence of performing partial production processes, the sequence of launching and releasing various types of products, etc.
Principles of organization of production
A rational organization of production must meet a number of requirements, be based on certain principles:
Proportionality in the organization of production implies compliance with the throughput (relative productivity per unit of time) of all departments of the enterprise - workshops, sites, individual jobs for the production of finished products. The degree of proportionality of production a can be characterized by the deviation of the throughput (capacity) of each stage from the planned output rhythm:
,
where m – the number of redistributions or stages of product manufacturing; h is the throughput of individual stages; h 2 - the planned rhythm of output (output according to the plan).
The proportionality of production eliminates the overload of some sections, i.e., the emergence of "bottlenecks", and the underutilization of capacities in other links, is a prerequisite for the uniform operation of the enterprise and ensures an uninterrupted course of production.
The basis for maintaining proportionality is the correct design of the enterprise, the optimal combination of the main and auxiliary production links. However, at the current pace
renewal of production, a rapid change in the range of products and complex cooperation of production links, the task of maintaining the proportionality of production becomes constant. With the change in production, the relationship between production links, the loading of individual redistributions change. The re-equipment of certain divisions of production changes the established proportions in production and requires an increase in the capacity of adjacent sections.
One of the methods for maintaining proportionality in production is operational scheduling, which allows you to develop tasks for each production link, taking into account, on the one hand, the integrated output of products, and on the other, the fullest use of the capabilities of the production apparatus. In this case, the work of maintaining proportionality coincides with the planning of the rhythm of production.
Proportionality in production is also supported by the timely replacement of tools, an increase in the level of mechanization and automation of production, through changes in production technology, etc. This requires a systematic approach to solving the issues of reconstruction and technical re-equipment of production, planning the development and launch of new production capacities.
The complication of products, the use of semi-automatic and automatic equipment, the deepening of the division of labor increases the number of parallel processes for the manufacture of one product, the organic combination of which must be ensured, that is, it supplements proportionality with the principle of parallelism. Parallelism refers to the simultaneous execution of individual parts of the production process in relation to different parts of the total batch of parts. The wider the scope of work, the shorter, other things being equal, the duration of production. Parallelism is implemented at all levels of the organization. At the workplace, parallelism is ensured by improving the structure of the technological operation, and primarily by technological concentration, accompanied by multi-tool or multi-subject processing. Parallelism in the execution of the main and auxiliary elements of the operation consists in combining the time of machine processing with the time of setting up for removal of parts, control measurements, loading and unloading the apparatus with the main technological process, etc. -mounting operations on the same or different objects.
The level of parallelism of the production process can be characterized using the parallelism coefficient K n, calculated as the ratio of the duration of the production cycle with the parallel movement of objects of labor T pr.ts and its actual duration T c:
where n is the number of redistributions.
In the context of a complex multi-link process of manufacturing products, the continuity of production is becoming increasingly important, which ensures the acceleration of the turnover of funds. Increasing continuity is the most important direction of production intensification. At the workplace, it is achieved in the process of performing each operation by reducing auxiliary time (intraoperative breaks), at the site and in the workshop when transferring a semi-finished product from one workplace to another (interoperational breaks) and at the enterprise as a whole, minimizing interruptions in order to maximize acceleration of the turnover of material and energy resources (inter-workshop laying).
The continuity of work within the operation is ensured primarily by the improvement of labor tools - the introduction of automatic changeover, automation of auxiliary processes, the use of special equipment and devices.
The reduction of interoperational breaks is associated with the choice of the most rational methods for combining and coordinating partial processes in time. One of the prerequisites for reducing inter-operational breaks is the use of continuous vehicles; the use of a rigidly interconnected system of machines and mechanisms in the production process, the use of rotary lines. The degree of continuity of the production process can be characterized by the continuity coefficient K n, calculated as the ratio of the duration of the technological part of the production cycle T c.tech and the duration of the full production cycle T c:
where m is the total number of redistributions.
Continuity of production is considered in two aspects: continuous participation in the production process of objects of labor - raw materials and semi-finished products and continuous loading of equipment and rational use of working time. Ensuring the continuity of the movement of objects of labor, at the same time it is necessary to minimize equipment stops for readjustment, waiting for the receipt of materials, etc. This requires an increase in the uniformity of the work performed at each workplace, as well as the use of quick-change equipment (programmed machines), copying machine tools, etc.
One of the prerequisites for the continuity of production is the directness in the organization of the production process, which is the provision of the shortest path for the product to pass through all stages and operations of the production process, from the launch of raw materials into production to the release of finished products. Straightness is characterized by the coefficient Kpr, representing the ratio of the duration of transport operations Ttr to the total duration of the production cycle Tc:
,
where j – the number of transport operations.
In accordance with this requirement, the mutual arrangement of buildings and structures on the territory of the enterprise, as well as the placement of the main workshops in them, must comply with the requirements of the production process. The flow of materials, semi-finished products and products must be forward and shortest, without counter and return movements. Auxiliary workshops and warehouses should be located as close as possible to the main workshops they serve.
To ensure the full use of equipment, material and energy resources and working time, the rhythm of production, which is the fundamental principle of its organization, is important.
The principle of rhythm implies a uniform output and a rhythmic course of production. The level of rhythm can be characterized by the coefficient Kp, which is defined as the sum of negative deviations of the achieved output from the given plan
,
where e A – the amount of daily underdelivered products; n – duration of the planning period, days; P – planned output.
Uniform output means the production of the same or gradually increasing quantity of products at regular intervals. The rhythm of production is expressed in the repetition at regular intervals of private production processes at all stages of production and "the implementation at each workplace at equal intervals of the same amount of work, the content of which, depending on the method of organizing workplaces, may be the same or different.
The rhythm of production is one of the main prerequisites for the rational use of all its elements. With rhythmic work, the equipment is fully loaded, its normal operation is ensured, the use of material and energy resources and working hours is improved.
Ensuring rhythmic work is mandatory for all divisions of production - the main, service and auxiliary shops, logistics. Irregular work of each link leads to disruption of the normal course of production.
The order of repetition of the production process is determined production rhythms. It is necessary to distinguish between the rhythm of output (at the end of the process), operational (intermediate) rhythms, as well as the rhythm of launch (at the beginning of the process). Leading is the rhythm of production. It can be long-term sustainable only if operating rhythms are observed at all workplaces. The methods of organizing rhythmic production depend on the specialization of the enterprise, the nature of the manufactured products and the level of organization of production. Rhythm is ensured by the organization of work in all departments of the enterprise, as well as its timely preparation and comprehensive maintenance.
The current level of scientific and technological progress implies compliance with the flexibility of the organization of production. The traditional principles of production organization are focused on the sustainable nature of production - a stable product range, special types of equipment, etc. In the context of a rapid renewal of the product range, production technology is changing. Meanwhile, the rapid change of equipment, the restructuring of its layout would cause unreasonably high costs, and this would be a brake on technical progress; it is also impossible to frequently change the production structure (spatial organization of links). This put forward a new requirement for the organization of production - flexibility. In the element-by-element section, this means, first of all, a quick changeover of the equipment. Advances in microelectronics have created a technique capable of a wide range of uses and performing automatic self-adjustment if necessary.
Wide opportunities for increasing the flexibility of the organization of production are provided by the use of standard processes for the implementation of individual stages of production. The construction of variable production lines is well known, on which various products can be manufactured without their restructuring. So, now at the shoe factory on the same production line, various models of women's shoes are made with the same method of attaching the bottom; on auto-assembly conveyor lines, without readjustment, machines are assembled not only in different colors, but also in modifications. It is effective to create flexible automated productions based on the use of robots and microprocessor technology. Great opportunities in this regard are provided by the standardization of semi-finished products. Under such conditions, when switching to the production of new products or mastering new processes, there is no need to restructure all partial processes and production links.
One of the most important principles of the modern organization of production is its complexity, cross-cutting character. Modern manufacturing processes are characterized by splicing and interweaving of the main, auxiliary and service processes, while auxiliary and service processes occupy an increasing place in the overall production cycle. This is due to the well-known lag in mechanization and automation of production maintenance in comparison with the equipment of the main production processes. Under these conditions, it becomes increasingly necessary to regulate the technology and organization of the implementation of not only the main, but also auxiliary and service processes of production.
1. According to the role in the overall process of manufacturing finished products, production processes are distinguished:
main, aimed at changing the main objects of labor and giving them the properties of finished products; in this case, the partial production process is associated either with the implementation of any stage of processing the object of labor, or with the manufacture of a part of the finished product;
auxiliary, creating conditions for the normal course of the main production process (manufacturing of tools for the needs of their production, repair of technological equipment, etc.);
Servicing, intended for movement (transport processes), storage in anticipation of further processing (warehousing), control (control operations), provision of material, technical and energy resources, etc.;
management, in which decisions are developed and made, regulation and coordination of the course of production, control over the accuracy of the implementation of the program, analysis and accounting of the work carried out; these processes are often intertwined with the course of production processes.
2. By the nature of the impact on the object of labor, the following processes are distinguished:
technological, v during which there is a change in the object of labor under the influence of living labor;
natural, when the physical state of the object of labor changes under the influence of the forces of nature (they represent a break in the labor process).
In modern conditions, the share of natural processes is significantly reduced, since in order to intensify production, they are successively transferred to technological ones.
Technological production processes are classified according to the methods of converting objects of labor into a finished product into: mechanical, chemical, assembly and dismantling (assembly and disassembly) and conservation (lubrication, painting, packaging, etc.). This grouping serves as the basis for determining the composition of equipment, methods of maintenance and its spatial planning.
3. According to the forms of interconnection with related processes, there are:
. analytical, when as a result of the primary processing (dismemberment) of complex raw materials (oil, ore, milk, etc.) various products are obtained that enter various subsequent processing processes;
Synthetic, combining semi-finished products from different processes into a single product;
direct, creating one type of semi-finished or finished product from one type of material.
The predominance of one or another type of process depends on the characteristics of the feedstock and the finished product, i.e., on the industry specifics of production. Analytical processes are typical for the oil refining and chemical industries, synthetic processes for mechanical engineering, direct processes for small-scale simple production processes (for example, brick production).
4. According to the degree of continuity, they distinguish:
continuous and discrete (breakthrough ) processes.
5. By the nature of the equipment used, there are:
instrumental (closed) processes, when the technological process is carried out in special units (apparatuses, baths, furnaces), and the function of the worker is to manage and maintain them; open (local) processes, when a worker processes objects of labor using a set of tools and mechanisms.
6. According to the level of mechanization, it is customary to distinguish:
· manual processes performed without the use of machines, mechanisms and mechanized tools;
machine-manual , performed with the help of machines and mechanisms with the obligatory participation of a worker, for example, processing a part on a universal lathe;
machine, carried out on machines, machine tools and mechanisms with limited participation of the worker;
automated, carried out on automatic machines, where the worker controls and manages the progress of production; complexly automated, in which, along with automatic production, automatic operational control is carried out.
7. According to the scale of production of homogeneous products, processes are distinguished
mass – with a large scale of production of homogeneous products; serial – with a wide range of constantly repeating types of products, when several operations are assigned to jobs, performed in a certain sequence; part of the work can be performed continuously, part - for several months a year; the composition of the processes is repetitive;
individual – with a constantly changing product range, when jobs are loaded with various operations performed without any specific alternation; a large proportion of the processes is unique in this case. processes are not repeated.
Pilot production occupies a special place in the production process, where the design and manufacturing technology of new, newly mastered products are worked out.
In a complex dynamic modern production, it is almost impossible to find an enterprise with one type of production. As a rule, at the same enterprise, and especially in an association, there are shops and sections of mass production where standard and unified elements of products and semi-finished products are produced, and serial sections where semi-finished products of limited use are manufactured. At the same time, more and more often there is a need to form individual production sites, where special parts of the product are made, reflecting its individual characteristics and related to the fulfillment of the requirements of a special order. Thus, within the framework of one production link, all types of production take place, which determines the particular complexity of their combination in the organization process.
The spatial view of the organization provides a rational division of production into partial processes and their assignment to individual production links, determining their relationship and location on the territory of the enterprise. This work is carried out most fully in the process of designing and substantiating the organizational structures of production links. However, it is carried out as the accumulation of changes occurring in production. A lot of work on the spatial organization of production is carried out in the creation of production associations, the expansion and reconstruction of enterprises, and the respecialization of production. The spatial organization of production is the static side of organizational work.
The most difficult is the time section of the organization of production. It includes determining the duration of the production cycle for manufacturing a product, the sequence of performing partial production processes, the sequence of launching and releasing various types of products, etc.
4. Organization of the operational process.
The efficiency of the production process depends on the time of execution and the degree of its continuity. The efficiency of the production process is significantly influenced by the form of its organization, which is determined by the differentiation and placement of production processes in space and time.
The organization of the production process at the enterprise is characterized by the ratio of three main factors:
Volume and content of the production program;
The time available to the enterprise for the implementation of the production program, determined by the mode of operation and the accepted directions for the implementation of the program;
space , which is expressed by the size of the production area at workplaces and machines. According to the degree of specialization, size and constancy of the range of products manufactured on them, all jobs are divided into the following groups: 1) jobs of mass production, specialized in performing one continuous repetitive operation; 2) serial production jobs , on which several different operations are performed, repeating at certain intervals: time; 3) single-production workplaces, where a large number of different operations are performed, repeated at indefinite intervals or not repeated at all.
The type of production is determined by the predominant group of jobs.
The mass type of production is characterized by the continuous production of a limited range of products at highly specialized workplaces.
The serial type of production is determined by the production of a limited range of products in batches (series), repeated at certain intervals at workplaces with a wide specialization. The serial type of production is also subdivided into large-scale, medium-sized and small-scale production, depending on the prevailing group of jobs.
A single (project) type of production is characterized by the manufacture of a wide range of products in single quantities, repeated at indefinite intervals or not repeated at all, at workplaces that do not have a specific specialization.
The large-scale type of production approaches in its characteristics to mass production, and the small-scale type approaches to a single type of production.
The movement of parts (products) through workplaces (operations) can be characterized as follows. In time - continuous and discontinuous, in space - direct-flow and indirect-flow. If the jobs are located in the order of the sequence of operations performed, that is, in the course of the technological process of processing parts (or products), then this corresponds to a direct-flow movement, and vice versa.
Production, in which the movement of products to workplaces is carried out with a high degree of continuity and direct flow, is called in-line production.
In this regard, depending on the form of movement of products at workplaces, mass and serial types of production can be in-line and non-in-line, i.e., there can be mass, mass-in-line, serial and serial-in-line production. In a single type of production, it is usually difficult to ensure the continuity and straightness of the passage of all products manufactured at a group of workplaces, and therefore a single type of production cannot be in-line.
According to the prevailing type of production, the type of site, workshop and plant as a whole is determined.
In mass production plants, the mass type of production is predominant, but there may be other types of production. At such plants, the assembly of products is carried out according to the mass type, the processing of parts in machine shops is carried out according to mass and partially serial production, and the manufacture of blanks is carried out according to mass and serial (mainly large-scale) types of production. Mass production plants are, for example, automobile, tractor, ball bearing and other plants.
In factories where the serial type of production prevails, the assembly of products can be carried out according to mass and serial types of production, depending on the complexity of the assembly and on the number of manufactured products. The processing of parts and the manufacture of blanks is carried out according to the serial type of production.
For factories single production characterized by the predominance of a single type of production. Serial, and sometimes even mass production, is found in the manufacture of standard, normalized and unified parts and assembly units. This is also facilitated by the typification of technological processes and the introduction of group processing methods.
As the degree of specialization of workplaces, the continuity and direct flow of movement of products through workplaces, i.e., in the transition from single to serial and from serial to mass types of production, increases the possibility of using special equipment and technological equipment, more productive technological processes, advanced methods of labor organization, mechanization and automation of production processes. All this leads to an increase in labor productivity and a reduction in the cost of production.
The main factors in the transition to serial and mass types of production are: an increase in the level of specialization and cooperation, the widespread introduction of standardization, normalization and unification of products, as well as the unification of technological processes.
The type of production has a decisive influence on the features of its organization, management and economic performance (Table 3). Organizational and technical features of the types of production affect the economic performance of the enterprise, the efficiency of its activities. With an increase in the technical equipment of labor and an increase in the volume of output in the transition from single to serial and mass production, the share of human labor decreases and the costs associated with the maintenance and operation of equipment increase. This leads to a reduction in the cost of production and a change in its structure. Such a difference in the cost of a product in various types of production organization is determined by the complex interaction of various factors: the concentration of production of identical parts (products), the increase in the manufacturability of structures and the introduction of progressive standard technological processes, the use of productive equipment, the introduction of perfect forms of organization of production processes - continuous-flow mechanized and automatic production lines, better organization of labor and production management. These processes at enterprises are carried out continuously, which creates the prerequisites for the transition from single to serial and mass production types.
Table 3. - Characteristics of production types
| Factor | single | Serial | Mass |
| Nomenclature | Unlimited | Limited by series | One or more products |
| Release repeatability | Doesn't repeat | Repeats periodically | Constantly repeating |
| Applied equipment | Universal | Universal, partially special | Mostly special |
| Equipment location | group | Group and chain | chain |
| Process development | Aggregate method (per product, per unit) | Detailed | Detailed operation |
| Applied tool | Versatile, slightly special | Universal and special | Predominantly special |
| Fastening parts and operations to machines | Not specifically assigned | Certain parts and operations are assigned to machines | Each machine performs the same operation on one part |
| Worker Qualification | High | Medium | Mostly low, but there are highly skilled workers (adjusters, toolmakers) |
| Interchangeability | Fit | incomplete | Complete |
| Sebest. units of production | High | Medium | Low |
Where can I place free advertising on the Internet?
Proposal: supply factors, law The law of supply in brief
"soft" corruption How to determine if there is nepotism in the administration
The SEVCO WMS computer system is a powerful and flexible warehouse management tool
How to open a nightclub from scratch: a business plan to help a beginner
Different structure and density
Best-selling goods in Russia: statistics