Technological process and equipment for the production of fabric. Textile business: production of textiles from A to Z. Russian textile industry Quality of textile products

Lesson outline

“Working with textile materials. A country called textiles "

Target:

to introduce children to the professions of the textile industry.

Tasks:

Formation of ideas about the process of making cotton fabrics

Develop independence, self-control, ability, be creative when completing an assignment

To cultivate an aesthetic taste, a sense of beauty and neatness

Equipment: demonstration material, samples of cotton fabrics, cotton wool, threads, needles, pencils, buttons, scarves, fabric

Course of the lesson

1. Organizing time.

Placing children in their places and orienting them to educational and labor activities.

1. Introductory part.

Teacher: Hello guys! Today we will make a fascinating journey to the country called Textile.

Guess the riddle: what has a face and no back of the head? (Near the fabric.) Cotton fabrics are woven from threads. Where do the threads come from?

What raw materials are fabrics made from?

Guys, cloth takes a long way to become cloth. There is such a shrub plant - cotton. It loves warmth and grows in the south. When the cotton ripens, the seed pods burst, and each one contains a piece of cotton wool. (photo demonstration) This white fiber is needed to make fabric (show a piece of cotton wool). Previously, cotton bolls were harvested by hand. Now they are being harvested by cotton harvesters. Well, now we will hold a competition for the best cotton picker. But instead of cotton, we will take cotton balls, because cotton wool is the same cotton, only peeled.

Cotton picking competition

4 blindfolded players collect cotton balls scattered on the floor: whoever collects more is the winner.

Teacher: So we picked cotton. After harvesting, the cotton is dried, then baled and transported to the spinning mill. There, threads are spun from cotton and wound on special large spools - bobbins. (demonstration of a photo with the image of bobbins) At the factory, spinners and winders are engaged in this, and special machines - spinning and winding machines - help them. And now we will have a competition for the best winder.

Contest "Winders"

4 players receive a pencil to which a thread with a button at the end is tied: whoever winds the thread faster is the winner.

Teacher: Then the finished yarns are sent from the weaving shop, where they are woven into fabrics on looms. The threads in the loom are pulled parallel to each other: these threads are called the warp. And the other thread is pulled by the shuttle: it quickly moves back and forth across the main threads, intertwining with them. This is how the fabric is made. Weavers are watching this whole process. If the thread breaks somewhere, they should see and tie it in time. Weavers usually operate a large number of looms, so their hands must be dexterous and quick. I think that your handles are quick and dexterous. Let's check it out.

Competition "Weavers"

All players receive a pad to which three cords are attached: whoever braids a pigtail faster is the winner.

Teacher: So the fabric is woven. Do you think you can immediately sew clothes from it, or something else needs to be done? (demonstration of a harsh fabric - burlap) The newly woven fabric looks unsightly. Not only is it ugly, it is also not pleasant to the touch, therefore, we do not want to wear things from such a fabric. Therefore, in order for an unsightly-looking harsh fabric to look prettier and more cheerful, it must be treated with special substances, bleached. This work is done by finishers. They also dye fabrics using a whole rainbow of colors (show samples of finished fabrics).

Guys, what do you think can be sewn from these fabrics? (children's answers) That's right, blouses, skirts, trousers, shorts, jackets, hats, etc. are sewn from them. That is, all this is called in one word - clothes. Any clothing should be not only comfortable, but also beautiful. After all, clothes are also decoration. I think you will agree with me: everyone wants to be beautiful, right? And now we will hold the final competition with you.

III. The practical part.

Competition "Seamstress"

Give all the children a hair clip that they will do.Also cushions with needles, invisibility, buttons, scissors. Show a photo and a sample with a finished hair clip. Before starting the practical part, remember with the children the safety rules for working with scissors and needles.

IV. The final part.

Teacher: Here, guys, we visited an amazing country called Textile. You have learned which way the cotton fiber goes before it becomes a garment. As you grow up, you will have to choose one in a sea of ​​professions. All works are good, honorable, needed! But I want you to remember that there is a work of textile workers in the world, whose vocation is to dress people.

The fabric at all times remains the product of the light industry that does not lose its use. The fabric is made by a weaving factory. Its organization will require the purchase or lease of premises sufficient to install a whole line of production equipment.

Basics of fabric production

The fabric is made from yarn, which in turn is made from fiber. The quality of the resulting fabric is highly dependent on the characteristics of the fibers.

Fibers are divided into natural and chemical, derived from natural raw materials or obtained as a result of chemical synthesis, for example, polymer fibers.

The entire technology is conventionally divided into three stages:

• Spinning;
• Weaving;
• Finishing.

Spinning

The basis of fabric production is spinning. This is the process that produces a long thread - a yarn woven from short fibers. This production process is carried out on a spinning machine.

The fibers produced by the factory are usually compressed into small bales. Then they are loosened and rubbed on the appropriate machines, while cleaning them from the impurities of debris. The scutching machine produces a canvas from the threads, which is rolled into a roll.

The resulting canvas is then passed through carding surfaces covered with fine metal needles. At the exit, after carding, a tape is obtained, which must be leveled on a draw frame, and then slightly twisted on a roving frame and twisting machine. After these operations, roving is obtained.

On a spinning machine, the roving is leveled and stretched, then wound onto bobbins. The spinning machine for the production of fabrics is operated by spinners. Their responsibilities include eliminating yarn and roving breaks, changing bobbins and maintaining equipment.

Yarn is used to make:

• jersey;
• sewing threads;
• non-woven and woven fabrics.

Synthetic yarn

For the synthetic production of fabric, a more complex technological scheme is used. A liquid and viscous spinning mass is obtained from the starting components. It enters a spinning machine specially designed for processing synthetic fibers.

Fibers are formed using special dies - this is a small metal hood with many small holes inside. With the help of pumps, the mass enters the die and flows out through the small holes. The flowing out streams are treated with special solidification solutions.

The creation of a synthetic fiber is also the spinning of that fiber. Depending on what the fabric is intended for and what quality is required, the number of threads twisting into one is calculated. After finishing, the threads are wound on bobbins and sent to weaving.

Weaving

The direct process of making fabric from yarn is called weaving. The equipment for production at this stage is serviced by weavers who can operate up to fifty automatic looms.

On a mechanical machine, the weaver replaces empty spools, eliminates thread breaks. The employee must know the requirements for the quality of the fabric, the parameters of the defective fabric and the reasons for the appearance of defects, the measures for preventing and eliminating the defects. When the weaver starts the loom, it begins to combine the yarn into a woven fabric.

Threads and weaves

There are transverse and lobar threads, intertwined in different ways. The lobular threads are guided along the canvases as they are thinner and stronger. Transverse threads are thicker, shorter, tend to stretch.

The fabric obtained on the loom is called harsh. Threads woven from fibers of different colors are called melange. A fabric made of melange threads is called similarly. But if threads with different colors were used for the production of woven fabric, the fabric is called multi-colored.

The properties of the future fabric depend on the type of weave:

• Large-patterned weave - jacquard;
• Complex weave - pile, pike, openwork, looped, double;
• Simple weave - twill, satin, linen, satin, crepe and diagonal.

Small-patterned weaves are made on a single shuttle automatic loom. Multicolored and complex weaves - on a multi-shuttle automatic loom, large-pattern - on Jacquard looms.

How fabric is made

Fabric finishing

The last stage of production is finishing. It improves the quality and properties of the fabric, gives it a presentation and strength, depending on what processes involve finishing.

Finishing can be done:

• teasing;
• whitening;
• mercerization;
• scorching;
• boiling.

When singing, protruding fibers are removed from the surface of the harsh cloth. Desizing involves soaking the fabric to remove the sizing - the impregnation applied during weaving.

Boiling removes any impurities from the canvas, and mercerization gives shine, strength and hygroscopicity by washing. When bleached, the fabric is discolored, and when brushed, they give it softness.

Final finishing

The final finishing includes such processes as:

• calendering;
• expansion;
• dressing.

Calendering involves flattening the web, widening - flattening it to a standard width, finishing - applying starch for density, whiteness for bleaching, or wax or oil for shine.

Equipment

Fabric production requires a fairly rich production line... Let's consider the main types of production equipment, without which the manufacture of woven products cannot be started.

Loom

Designed for the manufacture of woven fabric, it can be shuttleless and shuttle, round and flat, wide and narrow. Weaving looms are selected depending on what kind of fabric needs to be produced: linen, silk, cotton or woolen.

Special equipment for working with a loom that produces decorative and patterned fabrics, carpets and other rugs.

Sizing machine

Impregnates fabrics with an adhesive solution called dressing. This is necessary for the production of wear-resistant and special fabrics, for example, for workwear.

Rolling machine

It is used to roll the resulting fabric into a roll or bobbin using an automatically rotating roller. A properly maintained knurling machine works more efficiently than the manual winding of the web by weavers, especially on a production scale.

Dyeing line and printing machines

Allows to dye fabrics with natural or synthetic dyes. The printing machine applies color prints with ink or dissolves the stencil pattern onto the finished dyed fabric.

Washing and measuring machines

The washing machine washes and dries woven fabrics after printing or dyeing, and inspection equipment is used to check the quality of the finished woven product, its length, width, density.

Scraper and shaker machines

Used when processing flax fibers to obtain shorter fibers. Shaking machines open up short fiber and give it a marketable appearance.

Carding and spinning machines

The carding machine processes flax fiber and makes ribbons out of it, and the spinning machine produces yarn with the required strength. The spinning machine can be spindle or spindleless, the first, in turn, is subdivided into weft and main.

This is just the main line of equipment, you may also need:

• linen cotoning lines;
• beating machines;
• squeezing and drying machines;
• wool washing and cotton processing devices.

It depends on the direction of the enterprise.

Video: Cotton, linen, hemp - features of the production of natural fabrics

Textile printing

Nikolay Dubina [email protected]

The drawing with paint on the surface of the fabric dates back to the times of the Babylonian kingdom. And the first mentions of obtaining colored decorative effects on fabrics are found in Pliny's Natural History.

At first, fabrics with such patterns were a cheap replacement for embroidered patterns, but over time they took shape as an independent art. In the early days, fabrics were hand-painted with writing and painting tools - primitive pens and brushes. In the Middle Ages, printed designs using wooden stamps became widespread (Fig. 1). At the same time, the master put a stamp in the right place and tapped it with a hammer, that is, as if he was stuffing a drawing. This is where the term "printed fabrics", "printed patterns", etc., came from.

In the territories of the former Persia, these crafts have survived to this day. Fabrics dyed with multicolor hand-stamped printing are as popular as Persian rugs.

Despite the preservation of folk crafts using hand printing, the mechanization of textile printing was inevitable. It began around the middle of the 18th century, and already at the end of the century the first roller printing machine was created with wooden and then metal engraved shafts.

In Russia, the first printing press appeared at the beginning of the 19th century in Ivanovo-Voznesensk, the then center of the textile industry. And 15-20 years later, textile printing machines were already working at all specialized enterprises in St. Petersburg and Moscow.

There are several effective ways applying a printed pattern to a textile fabric. As a separate art form, some hand methods of stuffing fabrics are also preserved. But mass production requires better and more productive printing methods.

The most productive printing methods include the following:

• mechanical printing with engraved metal rollers for drawing on cotton, cotton-like and viscose fabrics;
• silk-screen printing (photo film printing, FFP) with flat mesh patterns for the design of silk, silk-like, woolen and linen fabrics, as well as the design of finished products;
• rotary printing for drawing on knitted and non-woven fabrics and other types of fabrics and textile fabrics;
• airbrush printing;
• direct printing on fabrics and finished products;
• transfer or dry printing for drawing on some canvases and piece products;
• some others.

Other printing methods are much less used in the mass production of printed fabrics. Each of the printing methods actively affects the nature of the design of fabrics, imposing certain restrictions on the drawing. That is why a fabric designer is obliged to know well the possibilities of any printing method, since only such a pattern can be performed on a given fabric, subject to the technology of its reproduction on a certain equipment.

On any equipment, drawings of various types can be made: direct printing (white-earth, ground, on a light colored background with darker colors), etching, backup, pigment printing, semi-etching.

White-earth drawings include drawings with an area of ​​applied paint on more than 50% of the entire field of white fabric. Drawings on light backgrounds are made on fabrics by direct printing. These include chintz used for linen, calico, gauze, satin, blouses, shirts and decorative fabrics.

Ground fabrics include fabrics with patterns, the area of ​​which is more than 50% covered with printing ink. They make up b O most of the assortment of fabrics.

Etched fabrics are fabrics printed on a pre-painted surface. Chemicals are added to the ink to discolor the fabric where the ink is applied.

Reserve patterns are patterns applied to the fabric before dyeing it. In the composition of the printing ink for such drawings there are substances that do not allow the background dye to be fixed in the places where the printed drawing is applied.

Pigment printing can be done mechanically, by rotary printing or by silk-screen printing - by gluing a colored pigment to the surface of the canvas using a special binder.

Pigment dyes include matte linen, metal powders, etc.

Interesting printing effects can be obtained using various techniques, such as raster and three-color printing.

Raster printing differs from normal printing in that dot or mesh screens are used to obtain halftone transitions.

Three-color printing is called so because three colors are enough to reproduce a multi-color original. The drawing for this print is preliminarily made by the designer on paper with spectrally pure colors without admixtures of black and white. After color separation, three engraved printing rolls are made.

When printing silk fabrics, tint and highlight printing are used.

When performing tint printing, some of the ink may be removed. As a result, lightened areas are formed in these places.

Highlight printing consists in printing on white fabric with a highlighting composition. In this way, it is possible to make technically complex multicolor drawings with a small amount of paints.

When dyeing fabrics, the choice of printing technology is determined primarily by economic considerations. Direct printing on white fabric is simple and affordable, other prints are more complicated and more expensive, but they can significantly expand and enrich the possibilities of artistic and coloristic design of textile materials.

Hand print

Application of printing compositions using hand-made forms is of limited use and is used to create highly artistic effects on piece items. A high coloristic effect is achieved by coloring products with a large amount of colors. The thin black outline of the figures gives relief to the drawing. For the most part, the background is saturated.

In the manual method, the printing compositions are applied to the product in parts, using wooden forms on a printed table with dimensions at least equal to one product. The printed material to be printed is pulled manually onto special wooden frames. The frame has metal needles. To facilitate stretching, the product is pre-moistened, therefore, the packing is not carried out immediately after stretching, but only when the product is dry.

The frame with the stretched material is laid on the table, and the printer fills the patterns with hand-made wooden molds (Fig. 2), the protruding reliefs of which bear the printing compositions. Touching the ink poured into a special box with a hand mold, the printer picks it up on the protruding part of the pattern surface, then puts the mold on the fabric, hits it with a hammer and thus prints the pattern on the surface.

To achieve the coincidence of all parts of the pattern, two or three pins are attached at the edges of the form, which pierce the fabric from the corners, and set the form in the adjacent area. The number of colors in the drawing determines the number of applied forms. Sometimes the number of colors reaches two dozen or more.

First, the contour is filled, and then the printing inks are sequentially applied, starting with lighter ones and ending with dark ones. Priming paint is applied last. Sometimes, to increase the intensity of the background color, the ground paint is applied to the same area twice. After applying each ink, the frame with the article stretched over it is removed from the table and dried in air.

Mechanical printing with rolls

The method of mechanical printing using shafts is one of the most productive (Fig. 3). It allows you to reproduce the finest complex patterns on fabric, consisting of small planes, lines of different thicknesses and various points, grids, strokes, etc.

The most responsible and laborious in this method is the manufacture of engraved shafts.

In practice, several methods of engraving printing rolls are used: manual, molding, pantograph and photomechanical. The size of the repeating part of the pattern (rapport) and its character, the fineness of the lines determine the choice of the printing roller engraving method.

At manual way engraving tracing paper with the image of the drawing is superimposed tightly on the copper shaft. Previously, the contours of the drawing are outlined with paint containing sodium sulfide. After a few hours, as a result of the formation of sulfurous copper, the contours of the pattern appear on the surface of the shaft, which is deepened with a cutter. In the area inside the contour, parallel lines or points are also applied with a cutter.

Moletir way The engraving of the printing rolls is named after the hard, hardened steel roll with a relief pattern - the molet. The moles are used to extrude an in-depth engraving onto the soft copper surface of the print roll using a rolling machine.

The process of making a mollet provides for the preliminary obtaining of a matrix characterized by in-depth engraving. To do this, a tracing paper with an image of the same color, made with paint containing sulfur, is tightly placed on a copper-coated mild steel roller on top, and therefore, after a while, a reaction of the formation of copper sulfide occurs on the surface of the cylinder. On a special machine, taking into account the contours of the drawing, the surface of the cylinder is engraved, removing those areas that correspond to the drawing. After hardening, during which the steel is hardened, the engraved cylinder becomes a matrix.

To make a molot, the matrix is ​​placed on a molding press, where it, pressing under pressure against a steel lowered roller, squeezes out a relief on its surface during rotation. The process of forming the relief is completed by treating the steel roller in concentrated nitric acid. Previously, to protect the relief, the convex parts are covered with acid-resistant mastic. In unprotected areas, copper dissolves, deepening the relief. If necessary, the treatment on a molten press and in nitric acid is repeated. After hardening a steel roll with a relief surface, a mollet is obtained.

The molten method is much more productive than the manual one. Large drawings are not engraved using the molding method, since it is easier to cut the engraving not on the matrix, but on the printing roller itself.

Pantograph method engraving is more productive than molding. To obtain an image in this way, a drawing is drawn on a printing roller, previously covered with an acid-resistant mastic, and then it is removed when drawing a drawing with a diamond along the contour, exposing copper to deepen the engraving. The shaft is treated with concentrated nitric acid. At the same time, in areas not protected by mastic, copper dissolves, increasing the depth of the engraving.

The printing roll is engraved on special machines called pantographs. On mechanical pantographs, the transfer of a drawing from paper to a print roller is carried out using a system of levers. The drawing, previously enlarged four to five times, is transferred by engraving onto zinc sheets, and from them - onto the printing roller. More sophisticated are photoelectric pantographs, in which photocells, receiving pulses from a photographed drawing, send them to an electronic station and, after amplification, affect the operation of devices with diamonds tracing an engraving.

The pantograph method of engraving the printing rolls is used in the case of a large number of printing machines installed in the workshop.

Printing with engraved shafts provides clear contours, full imprinting of planes and obtaining halftones, high accuracy of setting the rapport. To transfer small shapes, halftones, shadows, paint overlays, engraving is used in the form of pico or raster dots. On a printed metal roll, continuous vertical stripes and relatively small sizes of smooth pattern planes can be engraved. But continuous horizontal lines are not allowed.

To determine the width of a line when engraving a pattern, it is necessary to know the number of threads in the fabric per unit area. Errors in thread count may cause moiré or stains on the fabric. Each type of fabric has its own depth and width of lines and dots when engraving. Rollers with deep engraving are unsuitable for printing thin fabrics, since the ink applied in a thick layer will not be completely absorbed by the fabric and will be crushed when the latter passes through other printing rollers.

The main part of the cylindrical printing machine is the printing rollers. They provide the transport of the fabric and the application of the printing compound. As already mentioned, the print roller is a cylinder mounted on a steel spike that serves as the axis of the shaft. The pattern is engraved on the surface of the shaft in the form of parallel strokes or a group of dots up to 20 pieces per 1 cm; therefore, engraving is called line or point engraving.

The depth of engraving when printing on woolen fabric is greater than when printing on cotton, and is 0.6-0.9 mm. Deeper engraving retains more ink and, with the appropriate pressure, provides a good print of the pattern not only on the front, but also on the wrong side of the fabric. In general, the thinner and finer the fabric, the finer the strokes of the engraving can be, the thicker and coarser the fabric - the deeper the strokes should be.

The shafts are chrome plated to extend the service life. The length of the printing rolls exceeds the width of the fabric by 10-20 cm. The perimeter of the roll reaches 780-1025 mm, which is associated with the large size of the pattern repeat.

The print rollers are located around a cylinder called a truck. To give elasticity, the surface of the truck is wrapped with several layers of cotton fabric. To protect the rolled layer of fabric from contamination with printing ink, a tarpaulin is sequentially tucked over them - a multilayer fabric with water-repellent impregnation, a cotton lining, and only then the fabric on which the pattern is applied. Kirza, sewn into an endless fabric up to 35 m long, is used for a long time. The pad is washed, dried and reused after several passes through the machine.

The ink from the box under the print roll is brushed onto the print roll and fills in the engraving. Excess ink from the surface of the print roller is carefully removed with a squeegee - a finely sharpened steel plate that reciprocates along the shaft. In the grooves of the engraving on the shaft, the paint remains.

Pressing against the truck, the print roller comes into contact with the fabric that follows it, and thanks to the pressure from the engraving of the roller, the ink transfers to the fabric, reproducing the pattern on it.

First, along the course of the fabric, rollers are placed, printing light colors with a small pattern, then darker ones, and then a ground roll is installed, the paint of which covers the entire field free from the pattern. The last roller without engraving evens out and pushes the primer paint.

Each printing roller of the multi-shaft machine prints parts of the design of the same color. Matching all parts of the pattern is challenging and depends on the placement of the print rollers around the truck. The position of the printing rollers in the process of work is corrected using the traf fi cation mechanism, which provides three types of movement of each printing roller independently of the work of the others. One of these movements, radial, moves the shaft at a certain angle around its axis. The second allows the shaft to move along its axis in both directions. The third movement aligns the position of the shaft exactly parallel to the axis of the truck.

The print rollers are pressed tightly against the truck by a mechanical or pneumatic device. The degree of pressure should be such that the printing compound penetrates to the wrong side.

When printing white-earth patterns, the speed of movement of the fabric reaches 35-40, and when printing ground patterns - 16-18 m / min. The fabric, tarpaulin and lining leaving the printing machine are dried. Since the fabric contains more ink than other canvases, it is dried separately.

Nowadays, cylindrical printing presses are more often used, equipped with a high-performance special chamber in which the fabric is dried with hot air. Final drying takes place in a roller dryer. The car is not filled with tarpaulin. The surface of the truck is covered with a layer of rubber, the thickness of which reaches 20 mm. After the last printing roller, a special device removes excess ink from the surface of the truck, thus making it possible to work without tarpaulin and liner. But, since when printing fabric on scarves, the printing composition passes to the wrong side, two canvases of cotton fabric are tucked into the machine as a lining, which take away the excess of printing ink. After leaving the truck, both cotton sheets are dried in a drying chamber with 15 horizontal drying drums. The high quality of printing on such a machine is due to the adjustable hydropneumatic pressure of the shafts to the truck, as well as the fact that the radial screening is automated and ensures the exact coincidence of parts of the pattern.

Silk-screen (photo film printing)

Silk-screen printing is a fairly common printing method, which in light industry is called "photo film printing" (FFP) with mesh patterns. This printing method was first brought to Europe from Japan in 1926. In Russia, it began to be used for printing on silk fabrics in 1936.

Like many other methods, the printing of fabrics with mesh patterns was initially exclusively manual. Gradually, this method was partially mechanized - at the level of individual operations.

If we consider the manual method of FFP, then there will be no doubt that it is known to printers as silk-screen printing.

The mesh pattern is a frame with a stretched thin nylon sieve fabric. The dimensions of the template are determined by the nature of the pattern and the parameters of the fabric. On the surface of the sieve there is a film impervious to paint, but the areas of the mesh corresponding to the pattern are free of it. The mesh pattern is applied to the fabric, ink is poured into it and rubbed by hand with a special rubber ruler called a squeegee (squeegee) - fig. 4. Through the areas not protected by the film, the printing ink enters the fabric, leaving prints in the form of a corresponding pattern.

Making templates is a complex and time-consuming process. First, a stencil fabric is pulled on the manufactured wooden or metal frames, manually or on machines, starting from number 49 and above (the number of the sieve is expressed by the number of cells per 1 cm2). Modern stencil fabrics are made from nylon and polyester fibers. The former absorb moisture as much as possible, and the latter are water-resistant - at average values ​​of relative humidity, they absorb no more than 0.5% moisture from the air, and therefore are not wetted with aqueous solutions, that is, with most photo emulsions. Such fabric is characterized by increased resistance to abrasion and physical and chemical influences. Depending on the printing conditions, stencil fabrics are processed in two ways: chemical (liquid degreaser) and mechanical (roughening with an abrasive paste). Abrasion is usually carried out once when the stencil is new. Since it does not always remove grease stains that reduce the adhesion of the emulsion to the mesh, chemical treatment is also recommended (the last operation for each stencil before applying the emulsion).

Manual production of templates. This printing method uses the following methods:

• cutting... Foil is used as the template carrier material. From its sheets, images are made by hand, which are transferred to the grid and glued to it. There is a foil for "smoothing" or for separating with an appropriate special dissolving agent;
• coating... The template material is transferred to the mesh in the same way as varnish, for example, with a brush;
• washout... While in cutting, the information to be printed is applied to the grid in the form of a negative image, in the washout, information about the image (with the printing elements exposed later for ink penetration) is applied to the grid using, for example, a water-soluble varnish. After that, the mesh is completely covered with the actual template material - varnish based on another solvent, such as acetone. Then the applied copy layer is washed away (in this example with water), and areas for the passage of ink in the form of printing elements of the image are opened.

Direct photomechanical method. For it, a material that hardens under the influence of UV radiation is used. The material is applied to a mesh installed vertically or at a slight angle. In order to achieve high quality and high thickness of the ink layer during printing, the copy layer for templates can be applied to the mesh several times with intermediate drying. The layers are applied from both the printed side and the squeegee side. The less visible the mesh structure on the surface of the plate, the better the print results. The reason is that in the printing process, the form must lie flat on the substrate so that there are no gaps for ink to penetrate. An even copy pressure also improves the quality by avoiding blurriness and inaccuracies in printing. After copying, the uncut areas are washed out. The direct manufacturing method meets all the requirements for high-quality printing and therefore finds the greatest application.

Indirect ways are used for high demands on the accuracy of the paint layer thickness, for example when applying a conductive paste to solar cells or sealing panels with specific paint layer thicknesses. The photographic layer on the carrier film, intended for a precisely defined thickness of the paint layer, is exposed, developed and only then transferred to the grid (glued, rolled, etc.).

Combined method. The photographic material with the carrier on the film is first transferred to a stencil grid, and then exposed and developed. This kind printed form has high accuracy in the formation of printed elements.

Other methods:

• cutting on a cutting plotter. With the help of graphic programs and computer CAD-design programs, templates can be cut from the appropriate film, which are then transferred to the mesh and glued. This process is comparable to making templates by hand cutting;
• UV projection for large formats. To reduce film costs or to be able to print very large stencil forms, projectors are used that expose the photomasks with UV light;
• inkjet method. Several manufacturers offer drop-on-demand piezoelectric inkjet systems in which UV-opaque inks (wax or ink) are sprayed according to the image onto a grid with a photosensitive layer. The ink applied in this way replaces the transparency. UV radiation hardens the exposed areas of the template. In the final development process, the inkjet-formed ink film is removed and the uncut areas are washed out.

To apply printing inks using mesh templates, a table is used, the length of which is determined by the dimensions of the room, and the width is determined by the dimensions of the roll or finished products. The table is covered with several layers of cloth, and the top is covered with PVC oilcloth. On both sides of the table there are guides equipped with stops for fixing mesh patterns. A piece of fabric equal to the number of plots to be printed is laid on the table and fixed on the needles located along the edges. The printing ink is poured into a mesh pattern, in which areas that do not correspond to the pattern are coated with an impervious varnish. A rubber squeegee fixed in a wooden frame is used to wipe the printing compound over the entire area of ​​the template. The paint, penetrating through the holes of the grid of the template, leaves imprints on the fabric. Areas of the fabric corresponding to the film are left without a pattern. Then the template is transferred to one rapport and patterns are applied in an adjacent area. The rapport is understood as the smallest, repetitive part of the pattern. To apply a second ink that is different in color from the first, use a template with the following pattern, etc. Here, on the table, the fabric is dried using electric heating devices placed in the table.

After applying all the paints, the fabric is removed from the table and finally air-dried, hanging on racks in the workshop.

The final transition from hand to machine printing took place in the 1950s. As a result, the problem of increasing the production of silk, linen printed fabrics and improving their quality was solved. Currently, the printing of these fabrics is carried out only by machine (not counting folk crafts and works of art).

Of course, manual printing tables with carriages of the Perepelkin system are still preserved in some factories, but they are used only for printing individual labor-intensive multi-pass patterns (scarves, scarves and other piece products), as well as for trial work.

In the domestic light industry, for printing on silk, woolen and linen fabrics, machines of foreign companies are mainly used, which allow you to print patterns on various fabrics made of natural silk, artificial and synthetic fibers, when it is required to reproduce especially complex, multi-color patterns with dense cuts and thin contours. ... The thickness of the line on the fabric depends on the number of the sieve, that is, on the size of the mesh. The pattern rapport can be 750-800 mm, and in some cases reach up to 1.5 m. The number of templates is usually no more than eight, but by overlaying color on color, the number of colors can be increased. The vividness and intensity of the color is achieved by multiple strokes of the squeegee.

The main parts of flat screen printing presses are: feeder, endless printing belt table, mesh flat patterns mounted in mechanically moving carriages, doctor blades and drying chamber. The fabric is fed into the printing machine from the roller through the tray compensator onto the printing table with the printing tape moving along it. The fabric is glued to the printing tape with an adhesive device installed under the print bed. The gluing device is a two-shaft padding device, the lower shaft of which rotates in a bath with glue solution and transfers it to the upper shaft, which is already on the printing tape. The thickness of the glue layer on the tape is adjusted by pressing the top shaft of the padding pad to the tape. The width of the glue distribution area along the tape is set using limiters in the form of tapered rollers adjacent to the paddle shaft.

The glue is prepared by heating an acrylamide solution for 2.5 h in a slightly alkaline medium in the presence of potassium persulfate as an accelerator of the polymerization reaction. To enhance the adhesive ability, the prepared mass is mixed with dextrin in a 1: 1 ratio. A highly concentrated solution of tragacanth is also used as an adhesive.

The fabric glued to the conveyor belt periodically moves with it by one repeat. Carriages with mesh patterns in the amount of eight to ten pieces are located above the table. Each template is equipped with a double rubber ruler with sharpened edges. The pressing of the squeegee to the template grid is provided by a special device.

When the fabric is stationary, all ink-filled stencil carriages are lowered onto the fabric and the doctor blades are automatically activated. The printing formulations are wiped through the meshes onto the fabric by the tightly pressing and moving squeegee towards the weft or warp. After completing a predetermined number of passes (1-4), the doctor blade devices are turned off, the carriages rise up, and the conveyor belt along with the fabric moves to a distance equal to the length of one template. As soon as the movement of the fabric stops, the carriages are again lowered onto the fabric and the cycle is repeated (Fig. 5). After applying the printing compounds, the fabric enters the chamber, where it is dried with hot air, and then placed in a trolley or wound on a roll.

The conveyor belt is guided under the print bed to the front of the machine. On the way, it is cleaned on a belt cleaning unit, which includes a washing unit (brushes, showers) and a drying device.

As the fabric moves across the platen, the lighter colors are first applied to the fabric, then the darker ones, and finally the base ink. Since each printing ink is applied without drying the previous one, in order to avoid ink spreading, they are used in a thickened state than in the manual method.

After printing ink on the fabric, it enters the drying chamber at a speed of 10-12 m / min. The moisture evaporation capacity of the drying chamber reaches 60 kg / h.

The transfer of the pattern to the sieve mesh from the original is done photomechanically.

However, along with the advantages, flatbed printing machines have disadvantages: relatively low speed printing (6-12 m / min) and increased consumption of printing ink.

When creating a drawing, the designer must keep in mind some technical limitations in the drawings when printing with mesh patterns:

• it is impossible to reproduce solid vertical stripes with continuous color filling;
• it is not easy to solve a border composition with a geometrically correct ornament, therefore, in drawings of this nature, it is necessary to make breaks at the junction of the rapports;
• print quality and fineness of the contour are largely due to the numbers of the sieves of the templates (the larger the cell size, the coarser the contour of the drawing).

Some additional devices used in printing on flatbed printing machines by many foreign firms allow printing on both sides of the fabric. This method, called sequential printing, can be used to design decorative fabrics and some piece products.

Rotary printing with mesh patterns

Another method of screen printing, which today is found only in large enterprises in the textile industry, is printing with rotary mesh patterns (Fig. 6).

The rotary printing method is based on the use of a perforated cylinder that acts as a printing roller. The squeegee mechanism is made of steel or rubber blades located inside the template at a certain angle. The dye is pumped under pressure into the template. The ink supply pressure can be adjusted.

Rotary presses can print a variety of materials, from lightweight man-made fabrics to heavy carpets, as well as thermal papers. The machines are especially effective for printing small batches of fabrics with frequent pattern changes.

The rotary method allows you to print on the fabric patterns of very precise geometric construction, a variety of border patterns, apply a continuous imprint of the ground.

The general disadvantages of rotary printing machines are the high cost of manufacturing cylindrical templates, the risk of ink sagging when the machine stops, and the need to exclude shaped weave fabrics from the assortment being processed.

Transfer printing (thermal, thermal transfer, thermal transfer printing)

Thermal transfer printing ( ancient greek... thermo - hot, English transfer - transfer, movement, translation) - a method of transferring an image to various surfaces under short-term exposure to temperatures from 120 to 190 ° C.

In its modern form, the technology of such printing appeared in England.

IN modern printing There are two main directions of thermal transfer image transfer: the application method and the thermal print method. This printing is often referred to as iron-on, iron-on, iron-on transfer, etc. - all these names refer to the first method, and the terms thermal printing, thermal printing, refer to the second method, which has a more complex technology.

Thermal transfer printing technology consists in transferring an image to a surface (in our case, to matter) using special intermediate materials (thermal transfer film or thermal transfer paper).

The image is applied to special paper or film (Fig. 7), and then transferred to the surface to be decorated using a heat press. The surface to be decorated must withstand high temperatures from 5 to 30 s. At home, thermal transfer printing can be done with an iron, this method is especially suitable for decorating children's or party items. But when using the domestic version of thermal transfer, it must be borne in mind that such images will be short-lived due to the insufficient temperature and pressure that are used to fix the images.

To obtain a high-quality result, three technological parameters must be observed: pressure (the force used to transfer the image), temperature and time of exposure to temperature under pressure on the carrier. Thermal transfer of images onto the surface of products is also called thermal transfer.

Due to its ease of use, thermal transfer printing technology has begun to be used in various fields: barcode labeling of various products and products, labeling of goods in logistics. In industry, this method allows you to apply variable information to goods - for these purposes, a special thermal transfer tape (ribbon) and thermal labels (or thermal transfer labels) are used.

Thermal transfer printing is most widely used in the textile and clothing industry (especially after the advent of 3D thermal transfers). Modern prints provide the ability to imitate various textures, up to embroidery. At the same time, the innovative technology of thermal transfer printing allows the use of additional finishing methods (embroidery, sublimation). Thermal transfers can be made with glitter paints or with their partial use, reflective paints and films, paints with rhinestones, holographic films, etc.

Thermal transfer printing is currently used quite widely: knitted products, textiles, wood, ceramics, glass, plastic, porcelain, faience, various leatherette and natural leather products. Almost any material that can withstand thermal stress can serve as a substrate for thermal transfer printing, but it is most often used for printing images on fabric.

In addition to the breadth and ease of use of thermal transfers, this method of application has several other advantages over other printing technologies:

• transmission of very fine lines and small details, which allows you to make the image more accurate and natural;
• images can be applied to untreated linen, burlap, canvas, various mesh fabrics that cannot be used as decorative surfaces when using the sublimation method;
• unlike sublimation and direct printing, thermal transfer printing allows you to decorate completely finished products (with zippers, buttons, patch pockets, protruding parts of the products);
• you can apply full-color images with photographic quality, which is impossible to achieve with silk-screen printing, and the brightness of colors is much higher than when using sublimation printing;
• images printed by thermal transfer, subject to the recommendations for care, are not inferior in resistance to external influences of other types of printing;
• thermal transfer allows you to print images in large quantities, and apply them to products as needed, regardless of the material of the carrier - this allows you to change product models, colors and materials;
• The main advantage of thermal transfer over other printing technologies is the speed of order execution.

Thermal transfer technology does not require multi-color devices, drying and other attributes of silk-screen printing, there is no need for expensive equipment - the presence of one thermal press replaces several intermediate operations in other types of printing.

Consumables for thermal transfer printing are mainly manufactured abroad, since the technology for the production of thermal transfer papers and films is rather complicated, and therefore significantly affects the cost of printing.

The very same technology of thermal transfer is not difficult. An image is applied to the transfer paper (transfer paper for inkjet and laser printing is available on the market) or by plotter cutting the image is cut from ready-made transfer films of various colors. Then the printed paper (or film) is applied to the fabric and pressed by the heating element of the heat press.

Transfer papers, in addition to the type of printing for which they are intended, differ in the color of the media (there are papers for dark and light fabrics) and the presence or absence of a backing (for transfer printing on dark fabrics, paper is usually used, which creates a white backing under the image, which makes the image clearer and more vivid.

Direct print

Direct printing on fabric is used in the manufacture of various kinds of textile products. As the name suggests, in direct printing, the printer does not apply ink to intermediate paper media, but directly to the fabric. This explains a number of special requirements for its design. First of all, they relate to the uniformity of the tension of the fabric during the printing process, the stability and accuracy of the system of feeding and winding the media. It is also necessary that the design of the printer prevents ink from getting onto the back of the media and smearing it. Therefore, for the technology of direct printing on fabric, printers specially designed for these purposes are used (although their printing system is no different from a conventional large-format piezojet printer).

Sample recipe for fabric printing ink The ink contains pigment, binder, thickener, catalyst and stabilizer and is prepared by simply mixing the formulation parts. It can also include emulsifiers, softeners, defoamers, etc. An approximate recipe for the preparation of printing ink (in g / kg): pigment (paste) - 60-100; thickener; methazine - 100; ammonium chloride with water (1: 3) - 25; 25% ammonia solution - 10. After the introduction of each component, the printing ink is thoroughly mixed. If the pigment is taken in powder form, it is pre-rubbed with water in a 1: 1 ratio. In this recipe, methazine and the SKS-65-GP latex available in the emulsion thickener are used as binders, the catalyst is ammonium chloride, and the stabilizer is an aqueous solution of ammonia. Dibutyl phthalate can be added as a plasticizer, silicone can serve as a defoamer, etc. It is recommended to prepare printing inks from pigment dyes relatively liquid, since thick ink can dry out on a template or on a printing machine shaft, in order to avoid which it is recommended to add ethylene glycol (up to 30 g / kg) to the printing ink, and to introduce wetting agents for better impregnation of hydrophobic fabrics. The fabric printed with pigments, after drying with the utmost precautions, ensuring good ventilation of the dryer and eliminating the risk of ignition of vapors of white spirit, which is in the emulsion thickener in a significant amount, is subjected to heat treatment, during which polymerization of film-forming resins and fixation of pigments on the fabric occurs. The method of heat treatment depends on the properties of the used film-forming resins. You can limit yourself to simple steaming for 20-30 minutes at a temperature of 100-105 ° C or steaming in thermal chambers at 120-140 ° C. Sometimes drying the fabric after printing is combined with heat setting, passing it through hot drying drums. It is not recommended to rinse the fabric immediately after fixing; it is necessary to keep it for 24 hours. In general, fabrics printed with pigments alone do not require rinsing, which is one of the advantages of this printing method. However, it should be noted that a thorough rinsing with detergents increases the friction resistance of some pigments. Pigment dyes are used mainly in direct printing - they give bright, even, clean color tones with a clear outline, high resistance to light and wet processing, but not always with sufficient resistance to abrasion and wet wiping. Pigment dyes can be used in rapport with dyes of various classes, but the obligatory washing of fabrics in this case reduces the dyeing effect. When white pigments are used on fabrics, beautiful matte patterns are obtained, and when white pigments are mixed with colored ones, matte color patterns are obtained. For the preparation of printing inks with white pigments, a wide variety of recipes are available. Here is one of them for synthetic fiber fabrics (in g / kg): 50% polyvinyl acetate emulsion - 400; TiO2 paste with glycerin 1: 1 - 150; dibutyl phthalate - 120; thiocyanate ammonium - 30. The printed fabric is heat-set on a frame with infrared radiation at a temperature of 150-170 ° C at a speed of 7-10 minutes, and then sent to finishing. Printing with metal powders is quite often used. Approximate recipe (in g / kg): 50% polyvinyl acetate emulsion - 6500; 10% polyvinyl alcohol thickener - 200; resin MF-17 or methazine - 100; bronze powder - 100; dibutyl phthalate - 80; thiocyanate ammonium - 20. Fixation of the fabric is carried out in the same way as when printing with white pigments.

In addition, fabric for direct printing must be prepared in a certain way: it is impregnated with special compounds that prevent ink spreading. As a rule, this is done on industrial equipment, and already prepared fabric for direct printing (both natural and synthetic) is available for sale.

Naturally, to obtain high-quality print results, you need to use an ICC profile.

So, direct digital large-format printing on the prepared fabric consists of the following technological operations:

• the image is applied to the fabric using a textile wide-format inkjet printer, filled with ink corresponding to the type of printing material;
• to secure the image to the fabric after printing, it must be subjected to certain processing(heated steam or just high temperature). The type of ink and the equipment needed to cure it is determined by the quality of the printed fabric;

Often, to improve the quality of color reproduction, extended ink sets are used, including, in addition to CMYK, also Orange and Blue. Their use also requires appropriate software - a professional RIP that supports work with similar color sets.

Thus, the following hardware and software is required for direct printing on fabric:

• large format inkjet printer for direct printing on fabric, for example Mimaki TX2-1600, JV33 or similar (fig. 9);
• zrelnik (for printing on natural fabrics) or IR-drying (for printing with dispersed ink on synthetics);
• professional RIP (PhotoPrint versions 4, 5, 6, RasterLink);
• fabric with special impregnation or equipment (impregnator) for self-impregnation.

Other printing methods

At one time, light industry enterprises experimented a lot with various types of printing on fabrics.

3D printing- application of crepe and moiré effects to a smooth fabric using a special printing ink. The essence of the method is that the surface of the fabric coated with a special composition acquires the ability to dry out. In this case, tightened sections are formed on it in the shape of the printed ornament. The resulting effect is stabilized.

Pigment printing consists in gluing any dye with an adhesive film-forming to the surface of the fabric. Varieties of pigment printing are matte linen printing, foam printing, bronze powder printing, carbon black. As a result, it is possible to obtain bright complex patterns with a clear outline on fabrics made from chemical and natural fibers.

Iris print- multicolor printing using one printing roller. This type of printing uses special, very hard ink pastes. Various shapes and shapes of different colors are cut out of pastes and assembled, like a mosaic, onto a shaft. When moistened, the paste passes onto the fabric. The disadvantage of this type of printing is that as the work progresses, the shaft changes in diameter and the rapport decreases. At the beginning and at the end of a roll of fabric, the pattern has a different scale of shapes.

One of the decorative printing techniques that improve the appearance of expensive silk fabrics is flock printing, that is, gluing flock (thinly cut pile) to fabric in an electrostatic field.

A print imitating the batik technique. The method is as follows. The tissue sample soaked in the paraffin solution is compressed at random. Then it is stained with black dye. The paraffin is removed and the mesh is photographed with the required repeat docking. From the negative received, a positive is obtained using the batik technique.

Watercolor print- its effect lies in the fact that the printing ink on the fabric does not form a clear, but a blurry form. Overprinting colors creates many complex tones and halftones like watercolors on paper. The watercolor effect can be obtained by using a water-in-oil emulsion thickener when printing with dispersed dyes fabrics made of acetate and polyamide fibers. The batik method can be combined with watercolor printing.

Used paints

The paints were discussed in some detail in the previous issues of the magazine. Here we will briefly mention that for printing on textiles, solvent, water or plastisol inks are used, which are absolutely harmless to human health.

Plastisol paint for textiles, made on the basis of polymers, ideally "lays down" on any fabric, enveloping the fibers of the product and forming a strong elastic connection. This ink does not contain harmful volatile substances, provides high quality printing, including on dark products. There are paints with additional effects - luminous and reflective, metallic, as well as three-dimensional. Paints are produced for application to textiles of various compositions (for example, white or dark cotton, synthetic material). The main disadvantage of platisol inks is that they create a very noticeable print on the fabric, and the resulting image cannot be ironed.

The water-based paint is based on water-soluble acrylic polymers. Images made with such paints are much softer than those made from plastisol. Painted items can be dry cleaned. Water-based paints dry at room temperature and are reasonably wash resistant. However, a soft impression with such paints can be obtained only on light T-shirts; on dark products, the thickness of the paint layer is similar to that of plastisol dyes. Water-based paint on textiles - these are colors of lower brightness and insufficiently high quality raster printing.

Solvent based inks are used for printing on synthetic fabrics. Such paints contribute to the formation of a colorful elastic film characterized by good adhesion. The paints dry at room temperature within an hour and a half. No heating is required when drying the product. This allows printing on fabrics that are not resistant to high temperatures. Solvent printing uses blue, yellow, black and red colors, as well as their shades.

As for the paints used on an industrial scale, for example, in knitwear or worsted factories, they are usually prepared in their own workshops (see the sidebar "An approximate recipe for preparation ...").

Printing inks are prepared by mixing, in a specific order, the individual components specified in the recipe.

The dye is rubbed with a wetting agent and a urea solution, after which it is heated until it is completely dissolved in a water bath at a temperature of 70-80 ° C. After cooling, reagents are introduced to ensure a certain pH value, and then a thickener, and everything is thoroughly mixed, and then filtered through a vacuum filter sieve.

Printing ink based on a semi-emulsion thickener is prepared by mixing a thickener from Manutex or alginate with a solution of dye and urea in the presence of stearox-6 on a high-speed mixer and then adding white spirit in small portions for 30-40 minutes. The rotation frequency of the mixer in the preparation of the semi-emulsion thickener reaches 1400-2800 rpm.

Specifications for patterns for printing on fabric If a fabric design is created for performing work on factory equipment, then the fundamental technological points should be taken into account: 1. It should be remembered that the fabric on the multi-shaft printing machine is stretched during operation. This small drawing gives a shift - a raster of the picture along the vertical. The stretching of the fabric is strictly proportional to the distance between the printing rollers - the greater the distance between the rollers, the greater the shift, the more the fabric is stretched. The maximum shift in the six-shaft pattern between the first and sixth shaft is 2.5-3 mm. If the colors of the pattern are densely crushed, the raster of the pattern is significant. Therefore, the designer must know the laws of traf fi cation and take them into account when creating the composition of the picture, avoid dense traf fi c of three, four or more colors. 2. It is necessary to determine the location of the colored areas of drawings for printing. The designer should be aware that during printing, the previous print roller transfers some of its ink through the fabric to the subsequent roller, as a result of which the subsequent ink in the trough becomes dirty. The more paint area on the previous roller, the more contamination, which makes it difficult to obtain a pure shade of a particular paint. The designer needs to provide for this when placing the colored areas in the picture. Shafts with light colors are stacked in the first place, with dark ones - in the last. On the printing press, the rolls with the smallest engraving area (eg contour) are placed first. The designer must take into account the depth of the engraving of the different shafts in the drawing. If the engraving is applied differently to its indentation on each shaft of a multi-shaft design, such shafts will require different presses when printing, and different presses of individual printing rollers will give different tension to the fabric and will depress the laping shell in different ways. As a result, the bearing points of the shafts move, which will describe unequal circles, and it will be impossible to strafe the pattern in print. Therefore, the designer should not allow some shapes of the same color to be very thin, while others are coarse. Horizontal contour lines and large areas of soil should be avoided in drawings. Their presence makes it necessary to especially prepare the printing press for printing. To avoid knocking out the horizontal lines, the thick squeegee needs to be set at an angle, resulting in a messy, smudged print and gouge. Do not include a large number of vertical continuous lines in your drawings. When printing individual vertical continuous lines, cuttings are obtained (the hairs of the brush, which are in the trough, fall with the paint on the vertical lines along the shaft and tear off the paint from it). Therefore, it is necessary to draw some of the vertical lines discontinuous, especially in grid patterns (bus), in patterns for shirt fabrics, etc. For FFP drawings, solid vertical lines, regular geometric shapes, clear traf fi cation of a large number of printing inks are not allowed. Very large smooth planes of color are difficult to reproduce by direct printing on any equipment.

The prepared printing inks are called solid. With their help, colors of dark tones are obtained. Most often, solid ink is thinned (docked) and used to produce medium to light tones. Diluted paint is indicated by a fraction, where the numerator is the number of parts of the whole paint, and the denominator is the thickener. For example, mixing one part of the whole ink with one part of the thickener produces an ink which is designated as the fraction "1/1". Solid paint is respectively characterized by the fraction "1/0".

Since it is not always possible to obtain the required color or shade in accordance with the pattern, a mixture of printing inks with dyes of different brands in certain proportions is often used. A set of two or three printing inks is called a series. To indicate the composition of mixed paints, the colorants that make up the series are written in a specific order. The number of parts of the ink involved in the mixture is indicated in numbers. If non-solid printing inks are used, then their division is indicated.

All printing inks are divided into ground and non-ground (or color). This division is associated with the nature of the reproduced drawings. Distinguish between ground and white earth patterns.

A ground pattern is called a pattern that occupies more than 60% of the area of ​​\ u200b \ u200bthe fabric. Areas of the soil pattern, which are painted in one color and the area under which is the largest share among the rest, play the role of a background. Printing inks, which reproduce areas of the pattern corresponding to the background, are called ground paints. They have a high dye content to add richness to the color. In addition, they are applied to the same area two to three times. If the background is not colored, but remains white (in fact, cream, since the fabric turns slightly yellow from chlorination), then the pattern is called white-earth. To reproduce the white-earth pattern, only color printing inks are used. In this case, the viscosity of base inks is 80-105 s, and that of coloring inks is 55-70 s. The viscosity is determined by setting the flow time of a 500 mm sample of ink or thickener through a 5 mm funnel.

Excipients

The auxiliary substances that are introduced into the printing compositions have different purposes. First of all, these are agents that regulate the pH value, which should initially be in the range of 3-7 in order to maximize the reaction between the keratin and the dye. The required pH value is maintained by introducing acetic acid, which, when dried under steaming conditions, volatilizes and does not damage keratin.

When using active dyes, the medium by the end of the transition process of the dye to keratin should be slightly alkaline. Therefore, disubstituted phosphate or sodium acetate is introduced into the composition of the printing ink. In the presence of these salts and acetic acid, conditions are created for the formation of buffer mixtures, which provide the initial pH of the printing inks in the range of 6.9-7.4. By the end of the steam treatment of the fabric with the printing composition applied to it, hydrolysis of sodium phosphate, sodium acetate occurs, and the alkalinity of the printing ink increases.

Wetting agents are widely used in the preparation of printing compositions. They not only facilitate wetting, but also accelerate the solubility of the dyes, ensure their uniform distribution over the entire mass of the fabric. Glycerin, ethyl alcohol, alkylolamide, etc. are used as wetting agents. The first two of them do not cause foaming. Turpentine is added to prevent foaming of the printing ink. Urea plays an important role in the printing composition, its presence in a saturated steam environment sharply increases the moisture content of woolen fabric, and this, in turn, accelerates the processes of fiber swelling, dissolution and diffusion of dyes into the fiber. In the absence of urea in the printing ink, active and other dyes are arranged in a ring-like manner on the surface of the fiber, without penetrating into the material.

Excipients such as ink thickeners (thickeners) should be considered separately.

High and low molecular weight organic substances are used as thickeners for printing inks, which provide unlimited mixing with dye solutions. There are two types of thickeners: the first of them includes aqueous solutions of hydrophilic, high-molecular substances, the second - two-phase systems with pronounced interfaces. The nature of the thickener determines the basic properties of the printing ink (Fig. 10).

Starches - natural and modified, plant juices, as well as synthetic polymers are used as thickeners for printing on fabrics.

Starch-based thickeners exhibit a high thickening capacity, but they have several disadvantages. During storage, starch thickeners are separated into gelatinous and liquid phases, and thicken under the influence of alkalis.

Dextrin is a starch breakdown product. It has a lower thickening ability than starch, but dextrin thickeners are more stable during storage than starch thickeners, they are sufficiently viscous, sticky, hygroscopic, resistant to alkalis and give clear contours.

Tragant - frozen plant sap (astragalus gum) - comes into production in the form of dry horn-like scales, belongs to polysaccharides and has a high thickening ability. Hazardous thickeners do not have sufficient stickiness and therefore are used in a mixture with other thickeners that do not have this disadvantage.

The gum is the juice of tropical and subtropical plants, comes into production in the form of balls of irregular shape, readily soluble in water. A gum thickener is used to produce designs with crisp, fine lines. Gum belongs to polyelectrolytes and is a salt of polyuronic acids and their esters. It reacts with chromium and iron salts when present in ink.

Sodium alginate is the sodium salt of alginic acid. It is extracted from seaweed, where, in fact, it is in the form of alginic acid. The neutralized product is highly soluble in water, exhibits thickening ability, evenly and deeply penetrates the fibrous material, providing bright colors. In strongly alkaline and strongly acidic media, it precipitates.

Abroad, alginates for the textile industry are produced under the names Manutexes (Great Britain) and Lamitexes (Norway).

Thickeners obtained from the fruits of the guaranate shrubs and from the fruits of the locust bean are polysaccharides. They provide a homogeneous, well-penetrating thickener.

Cellulose ether - carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) is highly soluble in water and has a high thickening ability. CMC thickeners are storage stable.

Solvitose C-5, like CMC, is a product that is highly soluble in water, has a high storage stability, provides deep penetration of the ink into the fibrous material and obtains colors that are resistant to water treatment, can be easily removed by washing with de-sizing agents. ...

Synthetic thickeners are highly soluble in water, have a high thickening ability, so printing inks based on them contain little solid thickener. With the help of synthetic thickeners, a high color saturation and a high degree of dye fixation are achieved, which, in turn, simplifies the subsequent rinsing regime. Of the synthetic thickeners used: polyacrylamide and polyacrylic acid, which in their properties are close to sodium alginate.

Both polyvinyl alcohol and a product under the trade name "indalka" are used as synthetic thickeners.

Of greatest importance for printing inks are those thickeners that mix well with water, are stable in the pH range of 3-10, are characterized by a uniform consistency and easily penetrate to the wrong side, which is mandatory when printing a scarf assortment.

Alginate, CMC, C-5 solvitose thickeners are prepared by dissolving thickeners in softened water with stirring and heating. To accelerate the dissolution, the thickeners are pre-soaked in water for 2-4 hours, then the swollen mass is boiled for several hours until a homogeneous mass is formed in open boilers with mechanical stirrers. Heating is carried out with the help of steam circulating in the steam jacket of the boiler, and cold water is passed instead of steam to cool the mass after uncoiling. The finished thickener is unloaded by overturning the boiler using a special device.

Execution of ornamental composition as an example of the specifics of textile design Before the drawing decorates the surface of the fabric, it goes through several stages of development. First, the drawing goes to the colorist, who determines the technological features, the order of the drawing, and describes the composition of the printing inks for the author's sketch. At the next stage, metal engraved rolls or mesh patterns are made according to the pattern, with the help of which the pattern is printed on textile materials on the appropriate printing machines. Then, in the printing shop, the design is printed on the fabric in accordance with the schedule of the printing rollers (or templates) and the composition of the printing inks. The development of a drawing begins either with a sketch of the general idea of ​​a drawing in the form of a modern suit or an interior sketch, and then sketches of an ornament, floral motifs, etc. are used to translate this idea into reality. (solution from the general, the whole). Another way is also possible: first, sketches of natural motives are made, ornamental material is studied, and then, on the basis of this particular, a whole is created - a preliminary sketch of the drawing. Both paths are widely used by artists. A sketch is usually a rough sketch of an idea that needs to be developed into the final drawing. It is desirable that the sketch, made in full size, has at least the approximate size of the required rapport cell, an indication of the place of the rapport repetition. After bringing the sketch to a solution satisfying the author, its fragment of the corresponding size is removed on tracing paper with a rapport cell precisely drawn at right angles, or scanned and modified in specialized programs. One of the serious drawbacks of the pattern is its banding. Unplanned banding of the pattern can occur due to the accidental coincidence of the directions of the shapes, their outlines, details, color or background gaps between the shapes. The striped pattern can be noticeable in any direction: vertical, horizontal, diagonal. Banding often occurs at the rapport junction. Banding disappears when you change the direction of one or more shapes. This applies to decorative elements in the form of flowers, leaves, stems, branches, and other directed forms. Sometimes in a drawing one of the directions becomes more noticeable than the others, although the nature of the drawing does not require this. So, with a uniform distribution of multidirectional forms in the composition, all forms located exactly horizontally or vertically are immediately revealed, with a small rapport, an unnecessary vertical or horizontal is formed. The banding, formed as a result of the coincidence of the outlines of the shapes or that has arisen in the background gaps, is eliminated by shifting the shapes, changing their sizes or introducing additional elements. If the drawing in the plan "stripes" in color, it is necessary to distribute it in a different way in the forms, keeping the basic proportional relations of color areas. Another mistake is gaps, that is, uneven distribution of ornamental shapes, motifs or color in a drawing that initially assumes uniform filling of the background. If gaps occur, it is necessary to redistribute the shapes or introduce additional elements that level the plane of the drawing. It is advisable to correct all these shortcomings in the sketch. Paints prepared in advance are tested on a small part of the drawing, checking their compatibility and consistency. If the results satisfy the author, you can start coloring. It must be remembered that the execution of the sketch in the final version is not mechanical, but creative work. On the plan, only the outline image of the drawing and the conditional distribution of color planes, and in the sketch all the smallest details of the development, various effects, etc. are transferred. Color application in white earth and ground designs starts with the lightest color tone and finishes with a dark one. In etched and back-up designs, light colors are applied last. It is important to ensure that the light relationship of the lightest and the darkest is correctly built in the drawing, so that a pattern can be clearly traced in the color structure of the composition.

Dextrin, guaranate, indalka are dissolved in hot water, loading the thickener in dry form. Tragant, unlike other thickeners, is pre-soaked for a day, and then dissolved for a long time in an open boiler or at least 3 hours in an autoclave.

The starch thickener is used in a mixture with others. First, the starch is cooked in the presence of acid to reduce the polymerization of the polysaccharide and thereby provide more mobile thickeners, and then, after neutralizing the acid, mixed with tragacanth or dextrin thickeners. In order to reduce foaming, turpentine is introduced into the thickener, and oleic acid is added to impart softness.

For the preparation of the first type of thickener, high molecular weight substances are used as thickeners, having typically pronounced properties of colloids. Under the influence of water, they swell and form viscous, sticky colloidal solutions, characterized by the presence of a spatial internal structure, which is disturbed during printing under the influence of mechanical influences, which leads to a change in the elastic, elastic and plastic properties of thickeners. However, thickeners have the properties of thixotropy, that is, the ability to restore the previous structure due to the occurrence of internal contacts between the thickener molecules.

The properties of the thickeners are of great importance for obtaining even, rich patterns with clear contours. The most important of them are thickening and impregnating properties, resistance to the action of chemicals that make up the printing ink, good washable, etc.

For the preparation of two-phase thickeners, liquid hydrocarbons such as gasoline, white spirit and (less often) spindle oil are used, and water is the second phase. When mixed in certain ratios of water with liquid hydrocarbons in the presence of stabilizers, a stable two-phase emulsion thickener is formed, in which droplets of one product (oil or water) are in close contact with each other. Strong interfacial interaction leads to sticking and deformation of droplets, as well as the formation of cellular structures, separated by thin layers of stabilizer. In practice, emulsion thickeners, where the oil is in water (o / w), and not water in oil (w / o), turned out to be more accessible.
Under drying conditions, the emulsion thickener is destroyed as both liquid components evaporate, and therefore there is no need to rinse the fabric after printing. A semi-emulsion thickener based on manutex and white spirit or tragacanth and white spirit in the presence of stearox-6 is also used in production.

Such two-phase thickeners, in which low-molecular compounds appear in the form of solid or gaseous substances, also gain importance. Accordingly, they are called suspension and foam.

Textile materials include materials consisting of textile fibers and threads, and, of course, the fibers and threads themselves.

Textile materials serve to meet human needs for clothing, household and household items (bed linen and blankets, towels, tablecloths, napkins, finishing materials, curtains, carpets, etc.). Textile materials are used in almost all industries. They have found wide application in technology. Suffice it to recall the ropes and woven drive belts, conveyor belts and cord - a rare fabric made of twisted threads, which forms the basis of automobile, aviation and other tires, a variety of containers and packaging materials, about sails, fishing tackle, about a variety of thermal, electrical and other types of insulation. , about sieves and filters, etc. Parachutes, cosmonaut suits and much more needed for aviation and space are also made from textile materials. Medicine uses them as dressings and prosthetic materials. Also, textile materials are used in the interior design of theater, club, school premises, in bookbinding.

The applications of textile materials are subject to change: in some areas their use is declining, in others new, previously unknown uses are emerging.

So, with the development of the production of film materials, they often began to replace fabrics in the production of certain types of outerwear; non-woven fabrics are widely used as a basis for artificial leather, filters, materials for covering roads, etc.; there appeared knitted prostheses of blood vessels, light guides made of glass threads, etc. Plastics reinforced with various types of fibers, including glass and carbon fibers, became widespread. New fibers have appeared, obtained by crushing films.

There are many types of textile materials, which are usually classified according to the characteristics of the structure, the origin of the materials or methods of manufacture, chemical composition, and sometimes the area of ​​their use.

The first of these features is most convenient for constructing a general classification of basic textile materials, since they differ most significantly from each other, primarily in structure.

In fig. 8.1 presents a general classification of textile materials, which includes three main groups: I - source materials(fibrous and elementary threads), II - primary and secondary threads, III - various products. Various semi-finished products occupy a transitional position between groups. Since semi-finished products are intermediate states of materials, in which they are usually found for a short time in subsequent processing processes one after another, they are not included in the classification of basic materials, therefore, we will limit ourselves only to a brief listing of some types of semi-finished products.

So, in order to obtain yarn from most types of fibers, they are usually sequentially converted into the following semi-finished products: canvas, carding, ribbon and, finally, into roving, from which the actual yarn is produced. At the same time, the materials are cleaned of impurities and debris, the fibers in them are straightened, parallelized, and the semi-finished products themselves are aligned along their length, decrease in thickness and width, gradually turning into yarn.

Fabrics at different stages of production also have different names. For example, a woven unfinished fabric is called a harsh one that has undergone chemical refining, dyeing and other processing - dyed and finished.

From the general classification, it can be seen that textile materials are progressively more complex in their structure.

Group I includes raw textile materials(fibers, filaments, monofilaments, strips) from which other textile materials are obtained.

Textile fibers are called elongated bodies, flexible and strong, with small transverse dimensions, limited length, suitable for the manufacture of textiles.

Textile threads are strong bodies with relatively small transverse dimensions, but considerable length, used for the manufacture of textiles. Thin single threads that do not divide in the transverse and longitudinal directions without breaking are called elementary.

Stripes- narrow paper or film ribbons obtained from various polymers.

The original textile materials themselves are composed of fiber-forming polymeric substances. According to the sources of production, fibers and threads are divided into two types - natural and chemical.

Natural fibers include fibers and threads that are formed in nature without direct human participation, for example, develop in plants (cotton, bast fibers (flax, hemp, jute, etc.), on the skin of animals (wool), secreted by the glands of insects (silk) ...

Chemical fibers and threads are manufactured in a factory way as a result of various chemical, physicochemical and other processes and are subdivided into artificial, which are produced from natural polymers, and synthetic, for the production of which the polymers themselves are pre-synthesized from simpler compounds (monomers).

Natural fibers are used as they are formed in nature. To isolate from raw materials, purify from impurities and litter, natural raw materials, before entering the textile factories processing them, undergo so-called primary processing processes, usually carried out in special enterprises or in special workshops.

Man-made fibers are produced by cutting or breaking strands of a large number of filaments into short lengths or sometimes by crushing film materials into short longitudinal sections (fibers).

Elementary threads among the original natural materials are represented only by silk threads, and among the initial chemical ones - by many types that differ from each other in their chemical composition and other features. Wherein,

being very thin, they always enter in a bundle of several units or tens into complex threads, since they are not formed individually, but in a complex. In the future, it is the complex threads that are processed.

Monofilament are slightly thicker filaments that are used individually for the manufacture of fishing lines, the production of thin stockings, etc.

From the narrow strips, by twisting, they also form a kind of complex yarn, used mainly as twine for packaging purposes.

The 11 classification group includes threads of all types: primary - yarn, complex and split threads, and secondary - twisted, shaped, textured and other threads obtained by further processing of primary.

Yarn is the main type of primary threads. It is made from almost all kinds of fibers, as well as mixtures thereof. The fibers in the yarn are arranged along its length in a more or less straightened form and are connected mainly by twisting, and sometimes by gluing.

Complex yarns are the second most important type of primary threads. In addition to natural silk threads, they are all chemical. In the overwhelming majority of cases, all of their constituent filaments are obtained from the same polymer. In order to keep the filaments in the complex together, during the development of the latter, a twist is given to it or the constituent filaments are confused with each other with an air jet (non-pneumatic compaction).

Cut threads obtained by twisting narrow strips.

Many types of products are produced directly from primary threads of simple and complex structure (shaped, textured, etc.), but in some cases, to increase the variety of products, primary threads are first processed into secondary ones. To do this, the same or dissimilar multifilament threads or yarn are folded longitudinally at several ends (grown) and twisted together, obtaining twisted threads. Modifying their structure by successive torsion in different directions, get twisted textured threads, and by imparting a special twist, achieve loops, thickenings and other effects on them (shaped threads), etc.

Most of the threads do not go directly to the consumer. They are pre-processed into various products.

Group III of the general classification covers various products. Most of them are done from fabrics made of threads. Such products include fabrics, knitwear, nonwovens and knitted-woven fabrics.

Fabrics are flexible durable products of relatively small thickness, relatively large width and various lengths. They are usually formed by two mutually perpendicular systems of threads (longitudinal - main and transverse - weft), connected by weaving due to alternately overlapping each other.

Jersey- flexible durable products of low thickness and various shapes, obtained from one or many parallel threads by the formation of loops and their mutual weaving.

Recently, products have appeared called knitted and woven. In these, the weft includes small sections formed from knitted loops.

Nonwovens, like fabrics, are generated in the form canvases obtained from threads. Unlike fabrics, in them two systems of threads, lying at an angle to each other, are not intertwined, but are knitted with an additional thread. This method of producing nonwoven webs is not the only one. Many of them are produced directly from fibers.

Textile products made from threads include haberdashery, sewing, knitted, twisted.- "

Haberdashery products include ribbons, lace, tulle, plaited products (braid and cords).

Networking products presented fishing nets... These are thin, rare, durable and flexible products obtained from the threads of two systems, forming diamond-shaped cells when crossing, to maintain the size of which the threads are knotted or passed through one another.

TO knitted includes whole-knitted products: hosiery, gloves, scarves, shawls.

Twisted are called thread-like products, which differ from twisted threads primarily in that they go directly to the consumer or after a little additional processing, while the twisted threads are processed into various products. In addition, twisted products are in many cases much thicker than twisted yarns. These include various types of ropes, ropes, cord threads used in tire manufacturing, sewing and other threads, etc. *

Some of the products are produced directly from fibers. Such products include non-woven fabrics, felted-felt, loose-wavy.

Non-woven fabrics are obtained from a canvas consisting of parallelized fibers, fastened together in various ways - mechanical (knitting, etc.) or chemical (gluing, welding, etc.).

Felted-felt products are flexible, durable, of various shapes and the dimensions of the web, obtained by entangling, adhering and compaction of layers of fibers, mainly woolen (sometimes mixed with others). Such products are felt, hats, etc.

Loose fiber products(cotton wool and wadded products of various types) are a loose mass of fibers with a somewhat ordered arrangement (some parallelization), to one degree or another cleaned of impurities.

There are also combined products, which are generated from materials of different types by duplicating them. For example, some types of nonwovens are made by placing a fiber mat onto a fabric. and their subsequent fastening; carpets - by knitting cloths with flagella; loose-fiber products are sometimes combined with fabrics, paper and other materials by gluing them onto the latter (the so-called vatilins). Finally, for coats and other finished products, woven, knitted, non-woven fabrics are sometimes glued with porous films that insulate these products.

Fabrics and other textile products are characterized by a set of properties due to which they satisfy a specific need. The purpose of a particular tissue largely determines the choice of properties for evaluating it by

consumer value. The properties of fabrics and other textiles depend on the properties of fibers, threads (yarns), structure, production method and the nature of the finish.

Consumer indicators of the quality of fabrics can be divided into the following groups: hygienic; aesthetic; technological; operational.

Hygienic indicators are characterized by the following single indicators: hygroscopicity, water absorption, air permeability, dust permeability, vapor permeability.

The hygroscopicity (Wg,%) of textile materials determines their ability to absorb moisture at 100% relative humidity.

The hygroscopicity of materials is essential for the technological processes of processing garments and the operation of clothing. Good wettability and high sorption properties are required for a good-quality performance of finishing and dyeing operations on textile materials. To increase the wettability of textile materials, surfactants (wetting agents) are often used, which lower the surface tension of the liquid and create hydrophilic layers on the surface of the hydrophobic fibers.

The hygroscopicity of materials determines their purpose in clothing. So, for linen, dresses, blouses, shirts, etc., materials are required that have high sorption properties, the ability to wetting and capillary absorption of moisture. For outerwear (coats, raincoats, etc.), which are exposed to atmospheric precipitation when worn, materials with a reduced wetting ability are required.

Water absorption (P in,%) characterizes the ability of a material to absorb moisture when fully immersed in water.

Fabrics and knitted fabrics are capable of absorbing water and moisture. Depending on the environmental conditions, materials can retain absorbed substances or release them into the environment. As a rule, absorption is accompanied by a change in a number of mechanical and physical properties, dimensions and mass of materials.

With the absorption of moisture by the fibers, an increase in their size is observed, especially in their diameter, that is, swelling occurs. A significant increase in the transverse dimensions of the fibers in comparison with their length is associated with the longitudinal orientation of fibril macromolecules in the fiber structure. Water molecules, penetrating deep into the fiber, weaken the bonds between macromolecules, increase the distance between them. Hydrophilic fibers (viscose, wool, linen, cotton) have a higher swelling capacity than fibers of low hygroscopicity. The significant swelling of viscose fibers in comparison with other cellulose fibers is due to their loose structure, low density of macromolecules, which facilitates the penetration of water molecules.

Air permeability is the ability of a material to allow air to pass through.

The air permeability of modern materials varies widely: from 3.5 to 1500 dm 3 / (m 2 x s).

Plain weave fabrics have the least air permeability. With an increase in the length of the overlap, the friability of the fabrics increases and their air permeability increases.

Knitted fabrics have greater air permeability compared to fabrics, since the buttonhole structure of knitwear is due to the presence of large through pores.

With an increase in the bulk density of the material and its thickness, air permeability decreases, since the number of through pores and their sizes decrease, especially in materials with a dense structure.

Air permeability also depends on the moisture content of the material and the temperature of the air and material. With an increase in the moisture content of the material, its air permeability decreases,

with an increase in temperature from 20 to 120 ° C, air permeability decreases, which is associated with an increase in the viscosity of air and an increase in the vibration amplitude of the molecular chains of the fiber polymer.

Dust permeability - the ability of a material to pass dust particles.

Textile materials in the process of wearing products are able to pass into the underwear layer or retain dust particles in their structure. This leads to contamination of both the materials themselves and the layers of clothing located under them. Dust particles penetrate the material in basically the same way as air: through the through pores of the material. Dust particles are retained in the structure of the material due to their mechanical adhesion to the surface irregularities of the fibers and oil lubrication. In addition, the process of capturing dust particles by the material is facilitated by their electrification during friction. The smallest dust particles do not have charges, but they can, when rubbed against each other or against fabric, acquire a charge of a short duration. When there is a layer of electricity on the surface of the material, charged dust particles are attracted to the surface of the fibers, where they are subsequently held by mechanical adhesion or oil lubrication. Therefore, the higher the electrification of the material, the more it becomes contaminated. The loose porous structure of a material of fibers with an uneven surface has the ability to capture more dust and retain it for a longer time than the dense structure of a material with smooth, even fibers. So, woolen and cotton fabrics have the highest dust holding capacity, and the addition of lavsan fibers reduces dust holding capacity.

Vapor permeability is the ability of materials to transmit moisture vapor from an environment with high humidity to an environment with less humidity.

Depending on the density of the structure of the material, one or another way of passing moisture vapor prevails. In mate

With a dense structure (with a surface filling of more than 80%), the method of moisture penetration through its sorption-desorption by the fibers of the material predominates, therefore the vapor permeability of such materials depends mainly on the sorption properties of the fibers, their ability to absorb moisture. In materials with surface filling from 80 to 30%, moisture vapor passes, as a rule, through the pores of the material, and the vapor permeability of these materials depends on their structural parameters (density, type of weaving, thread thickness, etc.). With a surface filling of less than 30%, the ability of fabrics to transmit water vapor does not significantly depend on the hydrophilicity of fibers and threads.

An increase in the temperature difference between water and air and a decrease in the relative humidity of the air cause a significant increase in vapor permeability.

Aesthetic indicators are characterized by the following single indicators: drape, wrinkle, dimensional stability. The aesthetic perception of clothing largely depends on the color scheme, texture and material properties.

The drape of a material is its ability to form soft, rounded folds with a small radius of curvature. The purpose and choice of product models depends on the drapeability of the material from which the clothes will be made. The drapeability of materials depends on the flexibility of the material and its mass: the stiffer the structure of the material, the greater the effort required to bend it, the worse the drape. With an increase in the surface density of the material, its drape improves. Thin flexible and heavy materials, which form small folds, are especially well draped.

Crumpling is the property of textile materials to form non-disappearing folds and wrinkles under the influence of bending and compression deformations. Crumpling is a consequence of the manifestation of plastic and some elastic deformations by the material, which have a long relaxation period.

Crease is the opposite of crease resistance. Clothing materials should have optimal crease resistance. A very high permeability, as well as excessive creasing, is a negative factor that complicates the process of making clothes, worsening its appearance and quality.

Crease resistance is the property of a material to resist crushing and restore its original state after the force that caused it to bend is removed. The ability of a material to resist bending depends on its rigidity, and the ability to flatten, restoring its original state, depends on elastic properties and part of elastic deformations that have a short relaxation period.

The crease resistance of a material largely depends on its fibrous composition and structure. Materials made from fibers with high elasticity, capable of quickly recovering their size and shape after deformation, have increased crease resistance.

With an increase in the twist of the threads, their elasticity increases and the wrinkle of tissues decreases.

The wrinkle of fabrics and knitwear also depends on the location of the threads, their mutual cohesion and density. Crepe weaves, which have unevenly scattered overlaps, give the least crease to the fabrics. Plain weave fabrics have the greatest crease, for which the least effort is required to bend. Fabrics of higher density, in which the mutual shear of the threads is limited, have greater elasticity, retain their shape better in clothes and wrinkle less. Loose tissue, the elements of which are displaced without special efforts, have significant crease.

Knitwear is easy to wrinkle. The threads that form the loops in knitwear have a complex spatial arrangement, therefore, when the knitwear is crumpled, there are fewer sections of the threads that undergo the same deformation than in the fabric. The sections of the knitted threads, strained to varying degrees, help to quickly restore its original dimensions.

Form stability is the ability of textile materials to maintain their shape during the operation of garments.

During wearing of clothes, the material undergoes loads and deformations, the values ​​of which, as a rule, are much less than breaking. Therefore, in addition to the characteristics of strength and elongation at break, the total deformation and its components are determined under single applied loads.

Heat and moisture have a significant effect on dimensional stability. Under their influence, intermolecular bonds in the structure of fibers are weakened, which increases the mobility of macromolecules, their ability to move and deform. In addition, physicomechanically bound moisture plays the role of a lubricant in the structure of the material, contributing to an easier movement of fibers and threads during deformation of the material.

Knitted fabrics have a significantly higher deformation capacity compared to fabrics. When a tensile load is applied in the structure of the knitted fabric, the configuration of the loops changes, the threads are pulled from one section to another, straighten and bend, which is associated with the peculiarities of the loop structure of the knitted fabric.

Technological indicators are characterized by the following single indicators: needle-cutting, thread spreading in the seams, crumbling.

Needle cut. In the process of sewing on sewing machines, the needle, passing through the material, can hit the thread that forms it with its tip. In this case, partial or complete destruction of the thread can occur. Partial destruction of the thread is called a hidden cut, complete - an explicit cut. Cutting the threads leads to a weakening of the material in the seam area, and the obvious cutting of the thread in the knitted fabric causes the loops to be loosened along the entire product, which makes it unusable.

The spreading of the threads in the seams is called the displacement under the action of external forces of the threads of one of the systems along the threads of the other

goy tissue system. The spreading of the threads is a consequence of the small tangential resistance between the threads, their weak fixation in the structure of the fabric. In garments, thread spreading occurs in areas located near the seams and experiencing significant friction and stretching forces (armhole, middle back seam, side seams).

Resistance to sliding is the ability to resist displacement under the influence of external forces of the threads of one of the systems along the threads of the other system of the fabric.

According to the expandability of the threads in the seams (Y), they distinguish easily-expandable - up to 2, 8 kgf, medium-extendable - from 2, 9 to 4 kgf, non-extendable - over 4 kgf (daN).

Shedding (O) is the phenomenon of displacement and loss of threads from open tissue sections (daN).

Resistance to thread shedding is the ability to resist the displacement and loss of threads from open sections of the fabric due to low tangential resistance at the points of contact between the warp and weft threads, which are affected by the phase of the fabric structure, the type of weaving of the threads, their rigidity, etc.

According to the resistance to shedding, they are distinguished: easily shedding fabrics - up to 2, 9 daN (kgf); medium-removable - from 3 to 6 daN (kgf) and non-crumbling - over 6 daN (kgf).

The threads in the fabric are held together by friction and cohesion. The lower the coefficient of friction, the easier the thread slips out of the cut and is easier to displace in the fabric. The larger the contact surface area of ​​the warp threads with the weft threads, the larger the surface on which friction develops. With an increase in density and a decrease in the length of the overlaps, the coefficient of fabric cohesion increases and the possibility of displacement and shedding of threads decreases. So, in fabrics of a plain weave, the possibility of displacement and shedding of threads is less than in fabrics of a satin weave. Fabrics with sharply differing thicknesses of warp and weft threads have great shedding and expandability.

Performance indicators are characterized by the following unit indicators: tensile strength, mustache

resistance to abrasion and repeated bending, color fastness to washing, light, sweat, welding, friction, ironing, wet processing.

Shrinkage is the change in the linear dimensions of the material after wetting, washing and ironing, as well as under the influence of high humidity. Shrinkage leads to a decrease in the size of the material.

The change in the size of textile materials under damp and heat exposure is due to two reasons: the course of the reverse relaxation process and the swelling of textile fibers and threads.

Under the influence of moisture and heat, the relaxation process proceeds faster. Moisture, penetrating into the structure of fibers, weakens intermolecular bonds, and heat increases the kinetic energy of molecules and atoms. All this contributes to the removal of internal stresses, the resumption of the reverse relaxation process and the establishment of an equilibrium state. As a result, the fibers and threads are shortened and the structure of the textile material is restructured. Coming to an equilibrium state, the threads of the fabric change their height and wave bending length. Since the warp threads in the fabric are more stressed than the weft threads, they relax more when wetted, and when the mesh structure of the fabric is balanced, an additional bend is obtained, leading to a change in the phase of the fabric structure and to greater fabric shrinkage in length than in width.

Color fastness of textile materials is the ability to retain the original color as a result of the action of soapy water, perspiration, damp heat treatment, friction and light.

Packaging, labeling, storage of textile goods

Packaging preserves the quality of textile goods during storage and transportation.

Packaging can be primary (internal) and external (for transportation and storage).

The fabrics are folded and formed into pieces. A piece contains fabric cuts of the same article, grade, color, pattern, etc. Folding methods are specified in the standards. Pieces of fabric are wrapped in paper or plastic wrap. If fabrics are folded full width, both ends are left open. For fabrics folded in half, one end is left open. Light-colored fabrics, linen, curtains are packed from all sides.

For transportation, fabrics are packed in bales, bags, bales, rolls, and pile fabrics, crepe fabrics, etc., which not must be pressed, - in a rigid container - boxes. Bale is a semi-rigid container. Pieces of fabric wrapped in paper and covered with tape or braid are pressed together in a bale. The bale is covered with metal tape or wire.

Fabric marking

Fabrics are marked with a stamp and a trademark made of cardboard or thick paper. The stamp is applied with a contrasting wash-off paint to the wrong side of the fabric, the paint should not pass to the front side of the fabric. The stamp is applied to both ends of the piece, along the cut at a distance of no more than 10 mm from the edge of the piece or edge. The brand indicates the name of the manufacturer, the number inspector of quality control department as well as the length of the fabric in the piece.

The name of the manufacturer, its trademark, location, name of the fabric, article number, number of cuts in a piece, its total footage, grade, type of fibers used, their percentage, type of special finishing, color fastness are indicated on the trade label.

For each package, a seal card is drawn up, which indicates the basic information about the packed materials. On the reverse side Kip card sticks samples of drawings and colors of materials with an indication of the number of pieces of each design and colors.

Storage

Textile materials are stored in warehouses in a packed form. Warehouses must be dry, clean and ventilated. Protect textiles from direct sunlight. Snoring temperature - 15-18 ° С, relative humidity - 60-65%. At elevated temperatures, textile materials dry out, become low-elastic and rigid. At a relative humidity of more than 70%, textile materials become damp and destroyed as a result of the development of microorganisms. Textile materials fade after prolonged exposure to direct sunlight. But, since ultraviolet rays slow down the development of many microorganisms, light must be available in warehouses where fabrics are stored. Woolen fabrics should be protected from moths with anti-moth agents and inspected periodically.

Quality of textile products

The quality of textile products is formed during the design and production process and is maintained during the circulation and operation stages. Therefore, a successful solution to the problem of improving the quality of fabrics is possible only if there is a quality management system that covers all stages of creating textiles. Quality management requires systematic quality control of products and periodic assessment of its level.

Quality control of textile products is understood as checking the compliance of the quality indicators of textile products with the requirements of regulatory and technical documentation (standards, specifications, etc.).

Quality control of textile products is carried out at textile enterprises by employees of the department technical control... In the trading network, the level of quality of textile products is assessed by commodity brokers on the basis of current standards and technical conditions, basic terms of delivery, contracts with suppliers. The quality of textile products is monitored at wholesalers and in retail... In the wholesale trade, 10% of the received fabrics are checked, in the retail trade - 100% of woolen and silk fabrics and, selectively, at least 15% of cotton and linen. When accepting fabrics in terms of quality, they check the compliance with the normative and technical documentation of the external and internal packaging and labeling, the compliance of the checked batch with orders (by groups, subgroups, articles, colors, grade compliance).

In contrast to control, the assessment of the quality level includes a set of operations - the selection of the nomenclature of quality indicators, the determination of their numerical values, the selection of basic and calculated relative indicators, etc. Assessment of the quality level has a broader meaning than quality control. Especially important is the assessment of the quality of new fabrics, which should be comprehensive - take into account the purpose, operating conditions, type of fiber used, structure and properties of fabrics.

To assess the quality level of textiles, indicators of operational, hygienic, aesthetic properties and technological indicators... The significance of individual properties may not be the same for different fabrics and fabrics of the same purpose (women's woolen coats, for young people and older women, in terms of aesthetic properties, will have different meanings).

In the standards, quality indicators are subdivided into general ones - mandatory for all types of fabrics of this group in terms of fibrous composition and additional - mandatory for inclusion in standards and specifications for certain types of fabrics, depending on their purpose.

Grade of textile goods

The quality of textile materials is assessed by standards or other regulatory and technical documentation and is characterized by grade.

The variety is one of the main characteristics of product quality. Grade - the gradation of a certain type of product according to one or several quality indicators, established by the regulatory documentation.

In garment factories for the manufacture of products, materials of the 1st grade are used, in some cases - the 2nd grade. Non-grade materials are not used for garments. The grade of the material is set at the textile mill and is indicated on the identification label of each piece.

The basis for determining the grade of cotton and silk fabrics is a comprehensive assessment system, according to which the deviations of the indicators of its physical and mechanical properties and color stability from the norms established in the standards or technical conditions for this fabric, revealed during laboratory tests of the fabric, are evaluated in points. Vices are also scored appearance discovered while viewing a piece of cloth. According to the total number of points B total, obtained for deviations from the norms of indicators of physical and mechanical properties of B fm and for defects in the appearance of B vd, identified in a piece, the grade of each piece of fabric is determined:

B total = Bf M + B vd

The corresponding grade standard establishes a certain number of points allowed for a piece of grade fabric. So, for silk fabrics it is established: I grade - 5-7, II grade - 9-17, III grade - 25-30 points. For cotton fabrics: I grade - 10, II grade - 30 points.

The allowable number of points for each grade is determined regardless of the length of the fabric in a piece, the type of fabric and its purpose. However, these factors are taken into account when evaluating specific defects in appearance. So, for identical defects in appearance, found in tissues of different type and purpose, a different number of points was established. In this regard, the standards for grade provide for the division of fabrics into groups depending on their purpose; each group has its own scale for assessing defects in appearance. In addition, when assessing some defects in appearance (local), the length of the piece is taken into account, and if it deviates from the conditional length, the number of points for these defects is recalculated.

Linen fabrics are produced in I and II grades. Grade I fabrics in terms of physical and mechanical properties must comply with the standards for these fabrics; deviations are not allowed. For fabrics of grade II, the standard allows

certain deviations in width, areal density, warp and weft density, breaking load, but these deviations are not evaluated by points. Appearance defects found in linen fabrics are also not scored. Count their number per piece of actual length, and then calculate the number of defects per conditional area of ​​the piece, equal to 30 m 2. For fabric of I grade, no more than 8 defects of appearance (local) are allowed, and for fabric of II grade - no more than 22 defects (local) per piece of 30 m 2.

Grade II fabrics may have one common defect. In this case, the number of local defects, calculated for a piece with an area of ​​30 m 2, should be no more than 17.

The number of local defects in appearance P y per conditional area of ​​30 m 2 is calculated by the formula

P u - Pf (3 * 10 3 / L * v)

where P f - the actual number of defects on the measured piece;

L - piece length, m;

в - the width of the fabric, see.

Woolen fabrics can be of two types. Grade I fabrics in terms of physical and mechanical properties must comply with the standards for these fabrics; deviations are not allowed. For fabrics of grade II, the standard allows certain deviations from the minimum norms of grade I: in terms of warp and weft density, breaking load and elongation, surface density - no more than half of the permissible deviation established for grade I; by mass fraction: woolen fiber in semi-woolen fabrics - from 1 to 5%, fat not more than 1.5%; on the change in linear dimensions after soaking or wet ironing - up to 1% (pure wool) and up to 1.5% (semi-wool). For fabrics of grade I, a deviation from the norms is allowed for no more than one of the above indicators.

Defects in the appearance of woolen fabrics are divided into local and common. For fabrics of the I grade, no more than 12 local defects are allowed, for the II grade - 36. With a deviation

the actual length of the piece from the conditional number of local defects P y is calculated by the formula

P y = 30P f / L f,

where 30 is the conditional length of the piece, m;

P f - the number of defects on the actual length of the piece;

Defects in textile products

Defects in the appearance of fabrics, knitted and non-woven fabrics can be the result of defects in raw materials, yarns and threads, or occur during the formation of textile materials, as well as during their dyeing and printing.

Defects in raw materials. One of the main defects in raw materials is debris. In cotton, these are the shells of bolls and leaves, in wool - burdock and dandruff, in flax - fire. The contamination is a consequence of not only the poor quality of the raw material, but also its insufficient cleaning during scutching and carding. Debris is especially common in stitched nonwoven fabrics, for the production of which low-quality raw materials and waste are used. Waste yarn gives fabrics and knitted fabrics an ugly look, making their surface knobby and fluffy.

Unripe cotton fibers and dead wool fibers do not stain in the material and form white dots and streaks.

Yarn and thread defects. The unevenness of the filaments in thickness is the result of various reasons. In the yarn, thickenings can occur over a considerable length, exceeding the main thickness of the thread by several times; retracement - alternating thick and thin areas; non-proprietary - short thickenings of weakly twisted fibers; cones - lumps of screwed down fluff. Materials made from such yarns have an uneven, fluffy surface, and in knitted fabrics, in addition, they can cause zebrism.

In complex threads, thinning occurs, which is a consequence of the breakage of individual elementary threads. They lead to the formation of rarefied areas in the materials and the tightening of the filaments, which are noticeable in the knitted fabric in the form of dashes.

In textured yarns, significant variations in thickness occur, leading to the formation of thickened and thinned areas in fabrics and knitted fabrics.

The curls in the threads are formed with an unbalanced or high twist (crepe, muslin). The weft of such threads often has loops on the surface of the material.

Weaving defects. Twins - gaps along the length of the fabric, as from a thread pulled through for hemstitching, arise when the warp thread breaks.

Gaps or spans - gaps along the entire width of the fabric or in a separate section of it, are formed when the weft breaks. Outwardly they resemble close ones.

Podletin - several broken warp threads, braided with a weft and violate the weave pattern.

Undersections - transverse stripes thinned along the weft.

The nicks are transverse strips with increased density.

Gathering - the descent of the weft thread from the end of the cob in a bag of several turns and in this form earned into the fabric.

Different weft - the presence of a weft thread of a different thickness or color, which forms transverse stripes on the fabric, especially noticeable after dyeing.

Holes - holes caused by damage to the fabric by parts of the loom.

Violation of the weaving pattern - a knocked-down pattern due to an unsearched end of a thread or a shuttle span without a weft.

Dirty, oily threads give dark streaks and are the result of improper loom maintenance.

Knitting defects. Thinning of knitted fabric - sparse stripes, longitudinal in warp-knitted fabrics and transverse in knitted fabrics, are formed when one of the threads breaks when using threads in two or more ends.

Dropping loops of one or a group without breaking the thread with loosening of loops along the looped column causes the formation of a sparse longitudinal strip.

The loops put on after the dump form sections of the canvas strapped across and rows of hanging threads from its seamy side.

A set of loops is a violation of the structure of the canvas due to the appearance of thickened places and tightened loops.

Cloak-caps - strapped sections in the fabric, located in the transverse direction and violating its structure.

Punching of plated fabric - exit to the front side of purl or fleece threads.

Longitudinal stripes from compacted or sparse looped posts.

Darning - loops raised by a hook or needle (matched to a pattern or weave) with subsequent fastening.

Oiled yarns knitted give the canvas dark touches.

Defects in knitting knitting and stitching fabrics.

In stitched nonwoven webs, defects can occur when the canvas is formed during the carding process and when the canvas is stitched with threads.

An uneven canvas is obtained due to the uneven laying of the fleece-fleece on the carding machine.

Bookmark - a thickened strip across the web, formed as a result of the overlap of the ends of the fibrous webs on top of each other.

Mesh - a section of the fabric formed by the stitching threads that are not covered by the canvas due to the cessation of the supply of the canvas under the knitting mechanism.

Drops and half-dumps of loops are a violation of the loop formation process when knitting a canvas, a system of threads or rare fabric, as a result of which untied areas are formed.

Longitudinal stripes from sparse or compacted columns are stitched.

Capes - transverse stripes on the front side of the canvas.

Faces are compacted sections of the web.

Darning - raised and secured loops.

A set of loops - tightened sections in the canvas.

Tightening - reduction in some areas of the size of the knitting loops.

Dyeing, printing and finishing defects. During the dyeing process, the following defects may form.

Multi-shade - uneven coloring with a color change from the middle to the edges or from one piece to another. It occurs due to poor washing of the material or violation of the dyeing regimes.

Dyeing stains can be light or dark. They appear due to poor preparation of the material for dyeing.

Unpainted - incomplete staining of individual window sills or a section of threads in the inner layers of the material.

Transverse streaks occur when the machine stops during dyeing.

Various defects can form during the printing process.

Spreads - paint blur from insufficiently lowered, liquid dye.

Raster - a distortion of a multi-colored drawing due to the mismatch of figures and a shift in the picture.

Overlays are faint prints of the pattern formed when layers of insufficiently dried material are superimposed one on top of the other.

Gouges and clicks are shadow streaks or stains formed when a thread, fluff or speck gets under the squeegee of the printing machine, as a result of which ink does not peel off the print roller.

Serifs - Areas that are not printed due to wrinkles and wrinkles in the material.

The pattern joint is a fuzzy pattern match.

During the final finishing, distortions are formed, that is, the weft threads in the fabric and the loop rows in the knitted and non-woven fabrics are not located at right angles to the edges. Distortions occur mainly on tenter dryers. Distortions in multicolored and multicolored fabrics with transverse striped or checkered patterns are completely unacceptable.

Local defects- located in a limited area of ​​tissue (stain, hole, thick transverse thread, etc.).

Common- defects all over the fabric in a piece (weediness by fire, burrs, different shades).

1. Defects in textile yarns

Oiled Dirty Yarn- contamination of the yarn due to careless lubrication of the machine, removal of cobs with dirty hands, etc. Such yarn is unevenly colored.

Muskiness- fiber contamination by pieces of cotton bolls, fire, burdock.

Peresychiny- alternating thick and thin spots in the yarn due to a malfunction in the drafting unit of the spinning machine.

Lumpiness- sharp thickening from fluff adhering to the yarn.

Corkscrew- appears in twisted yarn with uneven twist distribution and twisting of threads with different tension.

2. Weaving defects

Twins- the absence of 1-2 warp threads in some area due to their breakage during weaving. Externally manifested by the presence of a longitudinal stripe.

Nicks- local increase in the density of the weft fabric. In dyed fabric, nicks appear in the form of lighter stripes along the weft.

Overshoots- a local decrease in the density of the fabric along the weft, the presence of stripes along the width of the fabric - thinning due to the absence of one or several weft threads or loose nailing of the weft threads with a reed to the edge of the fabric.

Dive- Areas with unbound weft and warp threads that show through on the front side or the wrong side.

Podpletins- violation of the structure of the fabric in the form of a continuously intertwined section with the ends of the torn threads, resulting from the simultaneous breakage of several warp and weft threads.

Span- the absence of one or two weft threads when the shuttle is idle.

Tweaks- local gaps between the warp and weft threads, located throughout the fabric.

Duck- the resulting weft earned in the fabric in the form of a tangled thread due to the continuous descent of the weft thread from the cob.

3. Printing defects

Serifs- a printing defect that appears as unprinted areas of the fabric in the form of stripes in the middle of the web or near the edge of the fabric.

Ink run-in- a wide, long, bright strip of the color of one of the printing inks, which is separated in the middle by a narrow strip of the background color of the fabric.

Multi-shade- different tone of ink on opposite areas of the right side of the fabric.

Raster image- displacement of parts of the pattern from a certain place in the pattern.

Smudged print- violation of the printing of the picture.

Template joint- violation of the printed pattern due to incorrect selection of the template. The defect is typical for silk fabrics made from natural silk or from chemical threads.

Stamp- an unpainted area of ​​fabric in the form of a narrow strip due to the ingress of grains of sand and damage to the blade of the squeegee.

4. Defects in finishing

Missing fabric width- inconsistency of the width of the fabric with the technical data.

Bad haircut- uneven pile height due to malfunction of the shearing machine

Bad comb- lack of fleece in certain areas of the fabric due to malfunction of the carding machine.

Textile and sewing and knitted goods

Clothing meets various human needs - both material and non-material. The essence of material needs, satisfied by clothing, is to create conditions for maintaining the normal functioning of the human body. Intangible needs are due to aesthetic, social and psychological requirements.

The factors that determine the degree of satisfaction with the clothes are:

properties of materials used to make clothes (fibrous composition, color scheme, etc.);

model, design of clothing, workmanship (fit, cut, quality of tailoring, etc.);

processing of the product in order to give it additional properties (dimensional stability, waterproofing, etc.).

Various materials used for the manufacture of clothing for various purposes are divided into the following groups:

1. Basic materials (for the top of the product) - fabrics, knitted fabrics, nonwovens, furs, natural and artificial leather and suede, complex and film materials, etc .;

2. Materials for lining - cotton, silk, semi-silk, synthetic fabrics, artificial and natural fur, knitted fabrics, etc .;

3. For laying - side and hair fabrics, calico, non-woven fabric, etc .;

4. For insulation - fur, cotton wool, batting, foam rubber, synthetic winterizer, fluff, etc .;

5. For joining parts - sewing threads, adhesives;

6. Materials for decoration - ribbons, lace, etc .;

7. Accessories - buttons, buttons, hooks, buckles, etc.

Textile goods

Textile fibers

Textile fibers are the raw material for the production of fabrics. All fibers can be divided into two main groups: natural fibers and artificial fibers.

Natural fibers, in turn, are divided into plant fibers, animal fibers and mineral fibers.

Vegetable fibers. Vegetable fibers include cotton, flax, hemp, jute, kenaf, kendyr, etc.

Cotton is a fibrous material harvested from the seeds of a shrub plant called cotton. Cotton is an elementary fiber in the form of a flattened tube with a corkscrew-like crimp. Chemically, cotton is almost pure cellulose.

The value of cotton as a raw material for fabrics is determined primarily by its length and fineness, since longer, thinner fibers can produce finer yarns and, therefore, finer and higher quality fabrics.

In pre-revolutionary Russia, mainly short cotton (up to 28 mm) was grown. In the USSR, cotton was grown mainly of medium staple (28-34 mm) and long staple (35-40 mm and above). Soviet breeders have developed cotton of these varieties, which yields cotton fiber exceeding in length, fineness and strength the best varieties of cotton in other countries. In the USSR, for the first time in the world, natural-dyed cotton (brown, green and other colors) was bred. Thanks to the labors of Academician T. D. Lysenko and his followers, cotton yields increased significantly and cotton growing areas expanded. The total harvest of raw cotton already in 1940 reached 2.7 million tons, which was 3.5 times higher than the harvest of cotton in 1913.

Flax belongs to the group of so-called bast fibers, i.e. fibers extracted from the bast part of plants. Flax, unlike cotton, is a technical fiber consisting of elementary fibers glued together by special pectin substances similar in composition to cellulose. Technical flax fiber has a length of 30 to 90 cm and can be separated into elementary fibers by special processing. The resulting fibrous material is called cotton fiber.

Linseed fiber, like cotton fiber, consists mainly of cellulose, but contains more impurities.

For the extraction of flax and the production of linen fabrics, the USSR ranked first in the world.

Fibers of plant origin have a fairly high mechanical strength (especially flax), as well as resistance to alkalis. The latter destroy plant fibers only during boiling and in the presence of atmospheric oxygen. When processing fabrics or yarns from plant fibers, for example, from cotton, with a solution of caustic soda at a temperature of no higher than 20 ° C, their properties are noticeably improved, hygroscopicity, the ability to color, and strength increase. This treatment is called mercerization. To the action of acids, especially concentrated mineral ones, fibers of plant origin are unstable. Prolonged exposure to light significantly weakens the strength of plant fibers.

Fibers of animal origin. Animal fibers include wool and natural silk.

Wool is the hairline of sheep, goats, camels and other animals. IN textile production mainly use sheep's wool.

A separate fiber of sheep's wool is an almost regular cylinder with a wavy crimp, which is not the same in different types of wool. The outer layer of wool fiber consists of a large number of scales of various shapes. Thanks to these scales, the wool fibers easily adhere to each other, thereby contributing to the so-called felting of wool products, that is, the formation of a felt-like layer.

The main constituent of wool is a protein called keratin.

The composition of sheep's wool can contain fibers of different types: fluff, or undercoat, which is the thinnest fiber; transitional hair is a coarser fiber than fluff; spine - long and coarse fiber, often without any crimp, and dead hair - coarse, very brittle, hardly colored hair.

Depending on which of the above fibers are part of the sheep wool and what is their fineness, wool is divided into fine, semi-fine, semi-coarse and coarse.

Fine wool consists of only fine fibers (such as fluff) and is the most valuable, since it can be used to make the finest yarn. Semi-fine wool differs from thin wool by a slightly greater thickness of fibers; it is also homogeneous in composition, as well as thin. Semi-coarse wool consists of fibers of even greater thickness; the composition of this coat is often heterogeneous. Coarse wool usually contains all types of fibers - transitional hair, awn - and therefore is most often non-uniform wool.

The wool of the described varieties is obtained from sheep of various breeds.

In the USSR, major successes were achieved in improving the breed herd of sheep. New breeds of sheep bred by Academician M. F. Ivanov, K. D. Filyanskiy, G. R. Litovchenko and others give a large amount of high-quality fine wool. So, for example, sheep of the Askanai Merino breed bred by Academician MF Ivanov give 6-7 kg of wool per shearing, and record-breaking rams - 18-20 kg.

In addition to natural wool, waste wool is also used in the production of fabrics, which is obtained by processing woolen and semi-woolen rags.

Natural silk is obtained from the cocoons of cultivated or wild silkworms These cocoons consist of a very long (sometimes over 1000 m) double silk thread glued together with special substances, about 30 microns thick. Several such threads, folded together, form threads of raw silk during the unwinding of the cocoons. Unwinding and spoiled cocoons, as well as various wastes during the unwinding of cocoons, are crushed and tousled to a fibrous state. From the pulp obtained, the so-called spun silk is obtained by spinning.

Natural silk, like wool, consists mainly of protein substances.

Fibers of animal origin (wool, natural silk), unlike vegetable fibers, are resistant to weak acids, but not resistant to alkalis.

Mineral fibers... Mineral fibers include asbestos.

Asbestos is a fiber derived from the mineral of the same name, which has a fibrous structure. Asbestos is highly fire resistant and is used for various technical purposes.

Artificial fibers. The most common man-made fibers are rayon, nylon and glass fiber.

The production of artificial fibers is developing at an extremely fast pace. During the fifth five-year plan, the production of artificial fiber will increase 4.7 times and will exceed the 1940 level by almost 11 times.

Artificial silk can be of several types: viscose, acetate, copper-ammonia.

Viscose silk (the most common) is produced in a complex way from spruce wood, previously converted into cellulose. This silk is unstable to the action of acids and alkalis; when wet it loses up to 60% of its mechanical strength.

Acetate and copper-ammonia silk is usually produced from short cotton fiber (down and down) with the help of acetic acid (acetate silk) and copper salts (copper-ammonia silk). Copper-ammonia silk is similar in properties to viscose, acetate silk is more resistant to moisture.

Artificial silk comes in the form of threads of an indefinite length and in the form of a short fiber from which yarn is subsequently obtained. The latter is called staple fiber.

Capron is a Soviet synthetic fiber produced in a complex way from phenol. Capron has a very high mechanical strength and chemical resistance, melts at a temperature of 250-260 °. At the same time, nylon is very little hygroscopic, which reduces its hygienic properties. Nylon and perlon are similar to nylon.

In the production of fabrics for household use, nylon is used mainly in the form of staple fiber mixed with wool. Nylon is very widely used in knitwear production.

Glass fiber - the finest strands of glass obtained by drawing from molten glass mass; it differs in fire resistance and low thermal conductivity. Glass fiber is mainly used for various technical purposes and the production of decorative fabrics.

Determination of the nature of fiber in tissues. Organoleptically, the nature of textile fibers is usually established by a test for burning a thread pulled out of the fabric. Fibers of plant origin (cotton, flax), as well as artificial silk (except acetate) are highly flammable, burn quickly, giving off the smell of burnt paper. To distinguish linen from cotton in yarn, it is unwound, and the cotton yarn breaks down into individual short fibers. Fibers of animal origin (wool, natural silk) burn poorly, emitting the smell of burnt hair, and carbon deposits in the form of a ball are formed at the end of the thread during combustion. Acetate silk burns slowly, forms a deposit, like wool, in the form of a ball, but the smell during burning has a specific - acetic acid.

In a laboratory way, the nature of the fiber can be established using a microscope, as well as by the action of various chemical reagents.

Yarn

Getting yarn. Yarn in textile production is called a thread obtained as a result of a series of operations from a pulp made up of one or more types of fiber (cotton, wool, flax, etc.).

The production of yarn from a limited length of fiber is called spinning. For each type of fiber, spinning has some peculiarities, but in general it consists of the following stages:

sorting and, if necessary, selection of various bales of fiber for mixing;

loosening the fiber and cleaning it from impurities (sand, dust, etc.). This operation is performed on special machines (bale breakers, scutchers), and the fibers are mixed at the same time;

carding the dies, and for its final cleaning of impurities, defective fibers, etc., as well as for parallelizing the fibers. The operation of carding the fibers is performed on special carding machines - carded and combed, and when yarn is obtained from a thinner and smoother fiber from a long and uniform fiber, it is combed twice: first on carding machines, and then on combed ones. From carding machines, the fiber is obtained in the form of a ribbon;

flattening and stretching the belt on a number of machines called belt and roving frames. The essence of these operations is that ribbons obtained from carding machines are folded and pulled again on draw frames, and then gradually pulled out and slightly twisted into the so-called roving on roving frames;

final spinning, which consists in stretching the roving to the desired thickness and spinning into yarn on spinning machines. From the spinning machines, the yarn comes out in the form of so-called cobs, that is, wound on spools.

In some cases, the yarn is subjected to further twisting in several folds on special twisting machines, resulting in a twisted yarn. When twisting, yarn of different thicknesses and dyed in different colors is sometimes used. The twisting itself can be carried out in such a way that one thread wraps around the other; in some areas, the twisting will be different, etc. With this twisting, a fancy yarn is obtained; it is characterized by its variegated color, the presence of loops, knots, etc.

Fibers that are distinguished by a large length (natural raw silk, artificial silk, nylon) are not subjected to such spinning, therefore they are called threads, not yarns. In the manufacture of fabrics, threads are often used in a twisted form.

Yarn properties. The most important properties of yarn are fineness, degree of twist, tensile strength.

The fineness of all types of yarn, as well as threads of natural and artificial silk, is designated by a metric number, which shows the ratio of the length of the yarn to its weight, that is, the number of meters of yarn in 1 g of its weight. The number of a twisted yarn of two threads of the same thickness is indicated by a fraction, in which the numerator shows the number of the single-thread yarn taken for twisting, and the denominator is the number of threads taken for twisting. So, for example, No. 170/2 means that the twisted yarn consists of two threads No. 170. The number of a yarn twisted from two threads of different thicknesses is indicated either by a fraction, in which the numerator indicates the number of one thread, and the denominator indicates the number of the other thread, or two digits indicating the numbers of the twisted threads and separated by a dash.

The twist of yarn is characterized by the number of turns per unit of yarn length, usually 1 m.

The tensile strength of a yarn is the breaking load, expressed in grams, at breaking a single strand.

Types of yarns and threads. Depending on the main source fiber, cotton, linen and woolen yarns, yarns and threads of natural and artificial silk, and nylon threads are distinguished.

Cotton yarn, in turn, is subdivided according to a number of characteristics:

by the nature of spinning - into combed (the thinnest and most even), carded (thicker and less even than combed) and hardware, or carbon monoxide (from waste and low-grade cotton);

twisting - into single-strand and twisted, and the latter can be simple and shaped twist of various names: pongee, boucle, etc.;

for finishing - for severe, bleaching, dyed, mottled (from a mixture of pre-dyed fibers) and colored (twisted from colored threads);

as intended - for the warp and for the weft.

Linen yarns are classified into wet-spun yarns and dry-spun yarns. In wet spinning, the roving is passed through hot water before stretching, as a result of which the spinning rod stretches better, it turns out to be thinner and smoother.

In addition, a distinction is made between linen and combed yarn (from waste).

Woolen yarn, depending on the spinning system, can be combed, semi-combed and wired, or woolen. Combed yarn is obtained by using combed from a wool that is more uniform along the length, is characterized by fineness, evenness and lack of fluffiness. Semi-combed yarn is produced from wool that is uneven in length, without combing; it is less uniform in thickness and fluffier than combed.

Hardware (woolen) yarn is the most fluffy, uneven in thickness, and has lower numbers. According to the fiber composition, a distinction is made between pure wool and mixed yarn, which includes, in addition to wool, other fibers - cotton, staple fiber.

Natural silk is used in fabrics in the form of raw silk, twisted and spun. Twisted silk is obtained by twisting several folds of raw silk. Distinguish between simple (moderate) and complex twisted silk. Silk of simple twists is called warp and weft. Silk of complex twists, depending on the degree of twist, has different names: crepe (silk of a very strong twist), muslin, grenadine, etc.

Artificial silk is produced in the form of yarn obtained from staple fibers, as well as in the form of silk of simple and complex twists. The latter has a number of names: crepe, muslin, crepe-granite, pongee, moos-crepe, etc.

Fabric production

The production of fabrics consists of the processes of weaving and finishing.

Weaving

General information. The essence of weaving lies in the interweaving of two systems of threads: longitudinal, called the warp, and transverse, called wefts. This weaving is carried out on weaving machines of various designs and is based on the fact that part of the warp threads in weaving looms are raised using a special mechanism, and the rest of the threads are simultaneously lowered, as a result of which a space called a shed is formed. A shuttle with a duck is passed into the mouth. The warp threads mutually move, clamping the inserted weft and forming a new shed. A shuttle with a hook, etc., is passed into this shed in the opposite direction. The laid weft threads are periodically nailed (compacted) to the edge of the fabric, with the help of a batan, in which the reed is fixed.

In a weaving machine, the warp threads are subjected to a fairly high tension and are subject to friction. Therefore, the yarn for the base is made more durable and, in addition, this yarn is subjected to special sizing (sizing) to make it smooth and increase strength with special compositions containing starch, glycerin and other adhesives and softeners.

For the formation of a shed during the operation of the machine and for uniform nailing of the weft, the base, previously rewound from spools to spools, is wound onto metal or wooden beams and pierced into the eyes of the heddle and between the teeth of the reed.

The number of headers and the nature of the warp parting into the eyes of the heddles depends on what kind of interweaving of the warp and weft you want to get in a given fabric.

The raising and lowering of the base with the help of the headers can be done in a variety of ways. The simplest option would be when even or odd warp threads are alternately raised with the help of the headers, and the most difficult is when, with each new pass of the shuttle with a weft, the warp threads move in a different combination.

For such movement, weaving machines with additional mechanisms are used, for example, with a special carriage or the so-called Jacquard looms.

Weaving weaves... The nature of the weaving of the threads in the fabric depends on the combinations in which the warp threads are raised and lowered in the loom. These weaves are very diverse. The main ones are listed below.

Plain weave, also called garniture, or plain weave, is characterized by the fact that each weft thread is interlaced with each warp thread, overlapping one and hiding under the other, so that the face and the wrong side of the fabric are the same.

Finishing cotton fabrics... Usually harsh cotton fabrics are subjected to the most complete finishing. The main operations of their finishing are bleaching, mercerization, dyeing or printing, dressing, widening, calendering.

Bleaching is used for linen fabrics and fabrics intended for subsequent dyeing in light colors. Cotton fabrics are bleached with special substances (hypochlorite, etc.). Before bleaching, fabrics are usually subjected to the following processing: singeing (quickly passing fabrics over the flame of gas burners or over the surface of a red-hot half-cylinder or cylinder), desizing (in order to remove the dressing with which the base was processed) and, finally, boiling in an alkaline solution to remove tissues of nitrogenous, waxy and fatty substances.

Mercerization consists in short-term processing of stretched cotton fabrics with a strong solution of caustic soda. This treatment gives the fabrics a shine and silkiness, increases their strength and improves the ability to dye. Chiffon, nansuk, satin, batiste, marquise and a number of other fabrics, most often produced from combed yarn, are mercerized.

Dyeing fabrics in one color is called smooth dyeing, and fabrics dyed in this way are called plain dyed. Tissues are usually dyed in special apparatus in which the tissue passes through a dye solution. Most often artificial dyes are used. Some of them dissolve directly in water, others in an alkaline environment; some paint the fabric directly, while others require its pretreatment (etching). The stability of dyes to light, water, washing, friction is different, therefore, the dyeing strength of the fabric primarily depends on the nature of the dyes used.

The dyeing strength of fabrics is checked in a laboratory way. The dyeing strength is evaluated by points: the highest score is 5, the lowest - 1. Fabrics with a dyeing strength below three points are considered to be of poor quality.

Plain dyed fabrics are divided into light and dark in color. Light fabrics include fabrics painted in colors: light yellow (cream), bright yellow (canary), pink of different shades, flesh, light blue, light green (pistachio), lilac, mignonette, light gray, gray, sand.

Dark fabrics include fabrics painted in colors: blue of various shades (electric blue, light blue, dark blue, cubic), dark blue (cornflower blue), green, dark lilac, dark gray, red of different shades (crimson, raspberry, orange, burgundy), brown of different shades ( light brown, chocolate, terracotta, dark brown), lilac, golden, plum, olive, beige (pinkish brown), black.

Printing (stuffing) fabrics is the process of applying a specially prepared (thickened) dye for this purpose on the fabric in the form of various patterns (patterns). Drawings are applied to the fabric by printing machines equipped with metal shafts with a pattern engraved on them. Dye is applied to these rolls and fills in the engraved grooves; excess dye is removed from the rolls with a special steel plate (squeegee). Pressing against the fabric, these rollers imprint a pattern on it. If the printing machine has one such shaft, the pattern is one-color (single-shaft); with two or more shafts lubricated with different paints, two-, three- and multi-color (multi-shaft). Machine printing can be direct, etched and back-up.

In the direct printing method, the pattern is applied to bleached fabric (white earth print) or light-colored (background print). In the etching process, the fabric is first dyed smoothly and then a pattern is printed on it either with one ink-etching agent alone, or together with a new dye that is not destroyed by this substance. In the first case, white patterns will be obtained on a colored background of the fabric; in the second case, colored pictures will be located on a colored background. In the reserve method of but un-dyed fabric, the pattern is printed with special compositions (reserves) that protect the fabric from dyeing, and then it is subjected to smooth dyeing. Places covered by such compounds will not stain and will give a white or colored (if dye is applied along with the reserves) pattern.

The ink applied to the fabric during printing is then fixed in various ways.

Dressing is the application of special compositions to the fabric - dressings, the main component of which is starch. The degree of rigidity of the finishing of the fabric depends on the composition of the dressing and its amount in the fabric.

Spreading - stretching the fabric in width, bringing this width to the dimensions provided by the standard.

Calendering - smoothing of fabrics between the rolls of a special machine (calender).

Certain types of cotton fabrics (flannel, bike, etc.) are subjected to teasing, which consists in the fact. that on special machines with the help of a needle cardo tape from a thicker weft yarn, part of the fibers is pulled out to the surface, due to which a pile is formed.

Linen finishing... Linen fabrics are generally finished in the same way as cotton fabrics, but there are some peculiarities. For example, linen fabrics are bleached in several stages, so they can be not only pure white, but also semi-white. Some fabrics are not bleached after opal and desizing, but are treated with sulfuric acid, then thoroughly washed and finally finished. Fabrics trimmed in this way are called sour. Linen fabrics are rarely dyed; linen yarn, from which multi-colored linen fabrics are produced, is dyed more often. The stuffing of linen fabrics is used even less often.

Finishing of woolen fabrics. The finishing of these fabrics has a number of significant features. So, in particular, woolen dress fabrics made of combed yarn are welded, and costume and coat fabrics are rolled in special felting machines. These operations achieve tissue compaction in length and width. When rolling, a felt-like layer is formed on the surface of the fabric, completely or partially hiding the nature of the weave. Most pure wool fabrics are carbonized, that is, treated with sulfuric acid to remove plant impurities. Of great importance in finishing woolen fabrics is the decating operation, which consists in processing fabrics with hot water and steam or only steam. Decatting leads to compaction of fabrics, improves their appearance, and prevents shrinkage in finished products. When dyeing fabrics containing, in addition to wool, other fibers (cotton, artificial silk), sometimes dyes are used that dye only wool. In this case, other fibers are not dyed, and the fabric takes on a very peculiar look, like a mottled one. This dyeing is called "over wool".

Finishing of silk fabrics. Compared to the finishing of cotton fabrics, the finishing of silk fabrics also has a number of features. So, in particular, when finishing fabrics made of natural silk, they are decocted in hot soapy solutions, which increases the softness and shine of the fabric.

A number of silk crepe weave fabrics are printed not by machines, but by means of photo film printing. With this method of printing, special frames with a silk mesh are imposed on the fabric, in which some of the cells are open in the form of a pattern, and the rest are covered with a special film, and then the paint is wiped on the mesh. The paint passes through the open mesh to form a pattern on the fabric. By changing the frame and the color of the paint, you can get a multicolor color on the fabric.

When printing piece silk products, an airbrushing method is also used, which is, in principle, similar to the painting of ceramic dishes by a stencil method.

Main technical indicators of fabrics

The main technical indicators of fabrics include: the type of yarn or threads from which the fabric is made (combed, carded, carbon monoxide, etc.), and their number; fabric width: warp and weft density; weight of one square meter; tensile strength and tensile strength of the fabric.

The type of yarns and threads used affects both the appearance of the fabric and its strength. Thus, the use of fancy twist yarn gives the fabric a characteristic outer saw; the use of twisted yarn ensures greater strength of the fabric, etc.

The width of the fabric is very important for cutting. Very narrow fabrics are not very convenient for cutting, they give a lot of waste. It has been established that for linen fabrics the most advantageous width is 71-74 cm, for woolen suit fabrics - 134-140 cm.

The warp and weft density of the fabric is determined by the number of warp and weft threads contained in a specific area of ​​the fabric (usually 10 cm). This designation of the density is, of course, conditional, since with the same number of threads, the actual density of the fabric will be different if you take yarns of different thicknesses.

The weight of one square meter of fabric depends mainly on the nature of the yarn and the density of the fabric. This indicator largely determines the purpose of the tissue. It is quite understandable that dress fabrics should be lighter than suit fabrics, and suit fabrics, as a rule, are lighter than coat fabrics.

The tensile strength of a fabric is defined as the load in kilograms required to break a strip of fabric of a specific width and length. The tensile strength of fabrics is a very important, but not the only indicator of wear, which is also influenced by the resistance of fabrics to abrasion, pushing, bending, etc.

Elongation - the ability of a fabric to elongate when stretched. If, after the end of stretching, the tissue returns to its original position, then such an extension is called elastic, if it does not return, it is called residual. Woolen fabrics have a significant elastic elongation, so they are less stretched and deformed in the sock than cotton or viscose fabrics, in which residual elongation prevails.

Assortment of fabrics and piece goods

All fabrics and piece goods are primarily divided according to their raw materials into cotton, linen, silk and woolen.

In turn, all these types of fabrics and piece goods are subdivided into groups, subgroups, types and articles.

Fabrics and piece goods are divided into groups according to various criteria: purpose, nature of production, fiber composition, etc. So, for example, in the composition of cotton fabrics and piece goods there are groups of fabrics: linen, dress, clothing, lining, furniture and decorative, towel, blanket, multi-colored fabrics, pile fabrics, with artificial silk, etc. The main feature for combining fabrics in the first seven groups is their purpose, in the multi-colored and pile groups - the nature of production, in the group of fabrics with artificial silk - the fiber composition.

The range of silk fabrics is divided into the following groups: fabrics from natural silk, from natural silk with cotton yarn, from rayon, from staple fibers, from rayon with cotton yarn, pile fabrics and piece goods. As you can see, in this case, the groups are distinguished by the composition of the fiber and the nature of production (pile fabrics).

Woolen fabrics are divided into groups mainly by the type of yarn: combed, fine-woven and coarse-woven, highlighting the group of scarves.

Not all tissue groups are subdivided into subgroups. The division of webs into subgroups is based on various signs. So, for example, the group of cotton dress fabrics is subdivided into subgroups of demi-season, summer and winter fabrics, and the group of clothing is subdivided into subgroups of plain-dyed, melange-colored, printed, winter and special fabrics. The group of natural silk fabrics is divided into five subgroups - crepe, linen, satin, shaped and technical fabrics; a group of fabrics made of natural silk with cotton yarn - into three subgroups: satin stitch, shaped, technical fabrics, etc.

The types (nomenclature) of fabrics are very diverse. So, in the assortment of cotton fabrics there are about 200, linen - about 30, silk - over 200, woolen - over 60 types. In total, there are over 500 types of fabrics. The names of fabrics themselves are in most cases purely arbitrary and usually do not at all express the nature of the fabric to which they belong, for example: asta, volta, marshmallow, marquise, groove, lyonnaise, effect, ister, etc.

In most cases, each name refers to a fabric made from a particular type of fiber. So, for example, chintz, calico, chiffon, marshmallow are always called cotton fabrics; boston, drape - woolen fabrics; crepe de chine, faydeshin. - silk. However, in some cases, the same name can be found in tissues that are completely different in the nature of the fiber. So, for example, cotton and rayon fabric is called a marquise; tartan - cotton, woolen and silk; linen - linen, cotton and silk; koverkot - cotton and woolen; cashmere - cotton, woolen and silk, etc.

The division into articles is a further clarification of the characteristics of certain types of fabrics, since fabrics of the same type (name) can be produced from different yarn numbers, have different widths and densities, etc.

Certain types of fabrics have a fairly significant number of articles. So, cotton sateen has over 25 articles, crepe de chines made of natural silk - about 10, half-woolen tights with fine cloth - over 30, etc. In this regard, the total number of articles is much greater than the number of fabric names (over 2000).

Articles are made on the fabric in different ways. Often for this, some additional name is added to the general name of the fabric. So, for example, cotton satins have additional names: homeland, extra, Moscow, fergana, etc.

Pure wool combed leotards are called: deluxe leotards, subway leotards, drummer leotards, etc.

In some cases, a certain number is simply added to the general name of the fabric (articles of chintz, coarse calico, a number of linen fabrics, crepe de Chines, etc.).

Assortment of cotton fabrics and piece goods

According to the price list, all cotton fabrics and piece goods are divided into 19 groups, of which 17 groups of fabrics are usually found in commercial practice: chintz, coarse calico, linen, satin, dress, clothing, lining, multicolored, teak, furniture and decorative, pile, shawl, towels, harsh fabrics, with artificial silk, blankets, gauze and gauze products. The remaining two groups unite fabrics for special purposes: packaging and packing, as well as technical.

Separate groups of fabrics (underwear, dress, clothing) are subdivided, in turn, into subgroups.

Each of the groups includes fabrics of different names, differing in the type of yarn, its numbers, the nature of the weave and other indicators.

Following is the a brief description of fabrics of each group.

A group of chintz. This group includes fabrics of the same name - calico, which are plain-dyed or printed plain weave fabrics made from medium yarn numbers (for warp no. 48 - 54, for weft no. 60 - 65). One-colored calico is divided into light and dark, and printed - into five groups, called specks (A, B, C, D and E). Printed calicoes are divided into specks depending on the area occupied by the pattern on the fabric, the nature of the stuffing, and the complexity of the pattern itself. The first speck (speck A) includes calicoes with a single-shaft white-earth pattern, occupying no more than 25% of the fabric area. The fifth speck (speck D) includes etched fabrics and fabrics with complex patterns that occupy a large area of ​​fabric.

Printed calicoes have a wide variety of designs and are used for various purposes (for men's shirts, women's and children's dresses, etc.).

Coarse calico group. Coarse calico is a plain weave fabric made from the lower middle yarn numbers (for warp Nos. 28-40, for weft Nos. 28-34). Coarse calico is divided into plain dyed, printed (and the packing can be one-sided and double-sided), as well as multicolored.

Plain dyed coarse calico is used for sewing overalls, as lining materials and partly as a shirt-dress material. Printed coarse calico is a shirt-dress fabric.

A group of linen fabrics. This group combines bleached or light-colored fabrics intended for sewing underwear. It is subdivided into three subgroups: coarse calico, calico and special.

The subgroup of coarse calico includes bleaching fabrics made from yarn of lower middle numbers: bleaching coarse calico, bleached linen, najma. Bleached linen differs from coarse calico mainly in the nature of the finish, which gives it some resemblance to linen; najma has a thinner base and a noticeable weft scar.

Fabrics of the calico subgroup are produced from yarns of medium, high and high numbers and can be bleached and dyed. The main ones are allied linen, madapolam, chiffon and nansuk, differing from each other primarily in the numbers of the yarn. So, the allied cloth is produced from yarn No. 48 on the warp and weft, madapolam - from yarn No. 48-60 on the warp and No. 60-65 on the weft, chiffon - from yarn No. 65 on the warp and No. 85 on the weft, nansuk - from combed yarn No. 100 on the warp and No. 120 on the weft. Chiffon and nansuk are produced mercerized. This subgroup also includes such fabrics as mal-mal, turban, which have a reduced density.

The subgroup of special fabrics includes fabrics from yarn of lower middle numbers, which have a high density - greensbon (weave - broken twill) and teak-eraser (satin weave).

Satin band... The satin group includes the following fabrics: satin, eraser and jiguni.

Satins are fabrics of satin weave with a weft cover, erasers - with a basic cover. Satins can also be of jacquard weave (satin-jacquard) with large weaving patterns.

Satins are produced from both carded (carded satin) and combed yarn (combed satin) of various numbers, therefore they are very diverse. Satins are produced in plain dyed, printed and, in some cases, bleached. Satins of hard finish are called nanbuks; they are mainly used as lining.

Erasers differ in much less variety; they are produced in plain colored and printed.

Jiguni, like the eraser, has the main covering, the yarn at the base is twisted.

Group of dress fabrics. This group includes a very diverse assortment of plain dyed, printed, multicolored and bleached fabrics used in the sewing of women's and children's dresses, blouses, skirts and men's overshirts. The dress group is divided into three subgroups: demi-season, summer and winter.

The subgroup of demi-season fabrics includes fabrics used for sewing men's outer shirts, as well as a number of dress fabrics made from yarns of middle and lower middle numbers.

Fabrics for shirts are usually made in plain weave, multi-colored with a striped or checkered pattern and dyed. These fabrics include: marshmallow - usually multi-colored fabric; marshmallow - usually printed fabric; kolkhoz shirt - printed fabric made of yarn of lower numbers than marshmallow; poplin - printed and multi-colored fabric with a rep effect; trouville, reps, lyonnaise and taffeta are fabrics with a rep effect, while lyonnaise and taffeta are mercerized fabrics dyed in light colors. Shirts are also pique fabric - a complex weave fabric with a scar along the base.

Dress fabrics can be made in various weaves. So, with a plain weave, garus (fabric with double-sided padding) and pongee (from fancy yarn) are produced; twill - cashmere and plaid (multi-colored fabric with a checkered pattern); finely patterned - wool (fabric with a special finish, in appearance - wool - similar to woolen fabrics), crepe and braid (with a weaving pattern in a small checker); jacquard - itching (with longitudinal intermittent ribs) and jacquard dress.

The subgroup of summer fabrics mainly unites fabrics for dresses - lighter and less dense than demi-season ones. The exception is matting, which is characterized by increased density and weight. The fabrics of the summer subgroup are produced in various weaves, most of them are mercerized. Plain weave fabrics are Maya (a type of fine chintz), asta (made of a special twist yarn), Volta (thinner than Maya), batiste (in this subgroup, the thinnest fabric of untwisted yarn), marquisette (thin fabric of twisted yarn), veil (similar to marquise, but made of yarn of lower numbers). Small-patterned weave produces rosin (with a weaving pattern such as waffle), crepe, braid, crepe veil; jacquard - muslin and crepe jacquard. The subgroup of summer fabrics also includes a number of mainly shirt fabrics of openwork weave: physical sports, twisted sports.

The subgroup of winter fabrics includes fabrics with a combed pile obtained by combing the weft threads, which in these fabrics are much thicker than the warp threads. Such fabrics are bumazey (with one-sided fleece), flannel (with double-sided fleece), bike (coarser than flannel) and children's piqué.

A group of clothing fabrics. The fabrics included in this group are distinguished by greater weight and density than dress fabrics. They are usually produced from yarn of middle and lower middle numbers, dyed mainly in dark colors, and fabrics. some species are mercerized. Clothing fabrics are intended for sewing suits, trousers, workwear, sportswear. There are five subgroups of clothing fabrics: plain dyed, printed, mélange and multicolored, winter and special fabrics.

The dyed fabrics subgroup covers the most diverse assortment of fabrics in various weaves. Plain weave fabrics of this subgroup include reps, tent and matting. Twill weave fabrics are adriatin (from untwisted yarn), tights (with a twisted base), diagonal (reinforced twill weave), gabardine (from twisted yarn in the warp and weft). Moleskin is worked out with satin weave (very dense fabric with weft cover); intricate weave - satin tights and adria.

The subgroup of printed fabrics includes only two fabrics: printed moleskin and printed diagonal.

The subgroup of mélange and multi-colored fabrics unites a number of fabrics in twill or fine-patterned weave made of mélange and dyed yarns. A significant part of the articles of fabrics of this subgroup are produced from twisted yarns in the warp, and sometimes in the weft, which increases their strength. The use of melange yarns gives these fabrics some similarity to woolen fabrics. The main fabrics of this subgroup are Columbia mélange, multicolored and mélange leotards, cheviot leotards, diagonal and overcoat.

The subgroup of winter fabrics includes fabrics with a brushed pile, which in appearance are somewhat similar to woolen woolen fabrics. They are usually produced with a satin weave with a weft cover, and the weft threads in these fabrics are thicker than the main ones and are laid more tightly. The pile is formed by combing the duck. The main fabrics of this subgroup are: moleskin-cloth, cotton cloth (wider, with thick high pile); pioneer cloth (wide, with a thick, dense pile), mélange cloth, vigone cloth, beaver (with twisted yarn at the base), suede and velveton (with short nap).

The subgroup of special fabrics mainly includes fabrics for workwear: special tricot, special diagonal, semi-double thread.

Lining fabric group... This group includes a very limited range of fabrics used for lining in outerwear: calico (plain weave, heavily finished fabric), pocket fabric (plain or twill weave), lining and sleeve twill, beading.

The group of multi-colored fabrics, like the group of lining fabrics, is distinguished by a limited range of fabrics. These include: tualdenor (plain weave made of untwisted yarn), patriotic (unlike toaldenor, it has a twisted base), cretonne (with wide colored stripes), Turkmen garus (plain weave), Turkmen aladzha (twill weave).

Group of teak fabrics. This includes fabrics of one general name - teak, characterized by wide colored stripes. Teak can be multi-colored (twill or satin weave) and printed on coarse calico, canvas or greensbon.

A group of furniture and decorative fabrics. The assortment of fabrics in this group is quite diverse. The main types of fabrics are: furniture rep (plain weave, with a pronounced rep effect), tapestry (jacquard weave, with a complex weaving pattern), layout (less dense fabric with a simpler pattern), shagreen (finely patterned weave), furniture fabric, upholstery fabric, furniture plush.

A group of pile fabrics. The fabrics of this group have a solid or ribbed pile on the front side. These fabrics include: semi-velvet (with solid pile), corduroy cord (with wide ribs), corduroy rib (with narrow ribs).

A group of fabrics with artificial silk. The fabrics included in this group are characterized by the fact that their warp is cotton, and the weft is made of rayon (rayon) silk. Certain types of fabrics of this group have combined yarn (cotton with viscose silk threads) in the weft, and sometimes at the base. The use of rayon silk significantly improves the appearance of these fabrics, giving them a similarity to silk fabrics. A number of fabrics of this group have the same names as the fabrics of the dress group, for example: tartan, wool, crepe, marshmallow, tussle, pongee. In addition, this group includes such fabrics as bayadere (multi-colored fabric with longitudinal stripes), shirt fabric, dress jacquard.

A group of harsh fabrics. This group includes a very limited number of fabrics made of harsh yarn that have not been bleached: calico, calico, twill, pocket fabric.

Blanket group. This group combines flannel and summer blankets and bedspreads. Bike blankets for production are plain-dyed, melange, multicolored and jacquard, and in size - for children, youth and for adults .. Summer blankets, in turn, are divided into pike and satin. By size, there are summer blankets for children, single (single), one-and-a-half (one and a half) and double (double). Bedspreads can be pure cotton and artificial silk.

The group is shawl. The headscarf group includes printed headscarves and handkerchiefs. Headscarves can be plain and from maya - mercerized. Handkerchiefs by material are divided into plain, chiffon and cambric; for production - for multicolored and printed and for finishing the edge - for hemmed scarves and with openwork stitching.

Towel group. This group includes: waffle towels, semi-white and bleached towels, jacquard terry gowns, waffle and terry towels, and jacquard terry sheets.

Gauze group... Covers a limited range of fabrics and piece goods: gauze, gauze bandages, dressing bags, dressings, tampons. In trade, it usually refers to pharmaceutical products.

Assortment of linen fabrics and piece goods

Depending on the main purpose, linen fabrics and piece goods can be subdivided into fabrics and consumer goods and fabrics and special products - technical, packing, sacking, etc.

Fabrics and single-piece consumer goods, in turn, are divided according to a number of characteristics.

So, according to the composition of the fiber, we distinguish between pure and semi-linen fabrics and piece products, which usually have a cotton base and linen weft.

By the nature of production and finishing, linen fabrics can be harsh, semi-white, white, colored (dyed in linen or yarn), multi-colored. Harsh fabrics that have undergone special processing (boiling or souring) are called boiled or sour.

Fabrics and piece goods of plain weave are usually called smooth, jacquard - kakhmchatny, fine-patterned (depending on the nature of the weaving pattern) - waffle, crepe, canel, etc.

With a relatively large number of articles, the number of items of linen fabrics is limited. Below is a brief description of the main types of fabrics and piece goods for general consumption.

Cloths, depending on the purpose, are divided into linen, costume and dress, tablecloth, cover, terrace.

Linen fabrics - plain weave, pure linen and semi-linen, white and colored. Wide linen sheets (from 138 cm and above) are also called sheets for duvet covers.

Suit and dress fabrics are usually produced as severe and semi-white.

Cloths for tablecloths made with jacquard weave are called damask cloths, and small-patterned cloths are called waffle cloths.

Cover canvases are striped, sour, and terrace canvases with wide, severe or colored stripes.

The canvases are narrow, mostly toweling. According to the fiber composition, they are divided into pure and semi-linen; by the nature of the weave - into smooth (plain weave), damask (jacquard), crepe and canel (finely patterned weave, with various weaving patterns); finishing - white, semi-white and harsh.

A mattress is a suit and dress fabric of a triple plain weave, it can be linen and semi-linen.

Kolomenok is produced in satin weave with the main covering; this fabric is for dress and dress; it is produced harsh, semi-white and white.

Tricot-arden is a semi-linen suit fabric of twill weave with colored spacing or colored.

Batiste is a pure plain weave fabric made from yarn of increased numbers.

The bead is a coarse cleanliness or semi-linen fabric of plain weave, used as a cushioning material when sewing an outer dress.

Teak is a fabric of plain or twill weave with colored stripes; it is most often used in the manufacture of furniture.

Upholstery fabric is produced from colored yarn in jacquard weave with a complex weaving pattern, and is used as an upholstery fabric.

Tablecloths are classified according to a number of characteristics. So, according to purpose, tablecloths (white) and tea (colored) are distinguished: according to the composition of the fiber - pure and semi-linen; by the nature of the weave - damask (jacquard), linen and waffle; on the edge processing - hemmed, with fringe, lace; in size - from 135X135 cm and above.

Napkins, like tablecloths, are divided into dining and tea, linen and semi-linen, damask and linen, hemmed and laced.

Appliances are sets of linen products, consisting of a tablecloth and 6, 8 or 12 napkins. They are subdivided into canteens and teahouses.

Sheets are divided into bathing and bed sheets. Bathing sheets are made of crepe and terry, bed sheets are smooth (from a sheet).

Towels are subdivided by fiber composition into pure and semi-linen; by the nature of the weave - into smooth, damask, terry, canel, crepe; for decoration - white, semi-white, harsh; on processing the edge - on hemmed, with fringe, with lace.

The range of linen fabrics includes, in addition, a number of fabrics and piece products from staple yarns, produced as linen fabrics. Such fabrics and piece products include: tablecloth, kolomenok, multicolored costume fabric, tablecloths and bedspreads.

Special-purpose fabrics include harsh coarse canvases, tarpaulin canvas, double-thread, raventuch, packing and sack fabrics, sacks, etc.

According to the price list, linen fabrics are divided into 12 groups, of which 2 groups (harsh coarse linens, canvas, double-thread, raventuch, container fabrics, bag fabrics) are fabrics for special purposes. The remaining 10 groups include: 1) damask table linen and bedspreads; 2) towels, damask towels, terry towels, sheets and handkerchiefs; 3) smooth canvases and towels; 4) white linen and costume and dress fabrics; 5) sheets are white sheets; 6) semi-white linen canvases; 7) austere thin linen canvases; 8) furniture fabric, teak, terrace canvases and paths; 9) the bead is severe and 10) fabrics and piece goods of the type of linen from staple yarn.

Assortment of woolen fabrics and piece goods

According to the price list, woolen fabrics and piece goods are divided into four main groups: combed (worsted) fabrics, finely woven fabrics, coarse fabrics and scarves. Blankets are not separated into an independent group, but are included in the groups of fine and coarse fabrics.

Combed fabrics... This group includes fabrics made from combed yarn with a smooth (lint-free) surface and a clearly visible weave pattern.

Depending on the composition of the fiber, combed fabrics are distinguished all-woolen and half-woolen. Pure wool fabrics include fabrics made entirely from wool, as well as containing up to 6% of other fiber introduced into the fabric to obtain an external effect. Semi-woolen fabrics are fabrics that have a cotton base, and a woolen weft, or, conversely, fabrics from twisted threads of different fibers, as well as fabrics in which the warp and weft can be from a mixture of different fibers (so-called mixed fabrics).

By design, combed fabrics are subdivided into dress, suit, trouser and coat fabrics.

Combed dress fabrics are characterized by a relatively low weight. Their width is most often 106 cm. And for fabrics of some articles 71, 90 and 142 cm.

According to the fiber composition, dress combed fabrics are subdivided into all-woolen and half-woolen.

Pure woolen dress fabrics are of high quality, produced mainly in twill and small-patterned weave.

These fabrics include autumn crepe, effect, phlox, armour shaped, fay, tartan, record, etc. These fabrics differ in weaving, the nature of the weaving pattern, yarn numbers, density, weight. So, for example, autumn crepe and the effect are the heaviest fabrics, and the record and tartan are the lightest.

Half-woolen fabrics are very diverse in fiber composition; some of these fabrics are produced with a cotton base and, in some cases, from twisted woolen and cotton yarns in the warp and weft. These fabrics include semi-woolen cashmere, floss, ister, tartan, etc.

A significant number of half-woolen dress fabrics are produced with artificial silk in the form of staple fiber or thread. The use of artificial silk made it possible to significantly improve the appearance of these fabrics while maintaining their quite satisfactory wear. To obtain original patterns that resemble patterns of mélange or multicolored fabrics, a number of fabrics of this group are dyed in the canvas with dyes that dye only woolen fibers (dyeing on wool). Fabrics with artificial silk include cashmere, record, cashmere-record, cord, crepe-jacquard, crepe-voile, etc. The structure and composition of the fiber are different. So, for example, cashmere has a cotton base, and weft - from a mixture of wool with staple fiber; record, cashmere-record and cord - in the warp and weft are yarn from a wool blend with staple fiber; in crepe-jacquard, the warp is twisted into two threads (woolen and from rayon), and the weft is from a mixture of wool with staple fiber, etc.

Suit combed fabrics differ from dress fabrics in their high weight; most of them are 124, 139 and 142 cm wide. Typical costume combed fabrics are tights, cheviot, boston, carpetcoat, gabardine.

Tricot - fabrics of twill or small-patterned weave, as a rule, multi-colored or mottled. By the composition of the fiber, tights are distinguished pure-woolen and half-woolen.

All-woolen leotards include luxury leotards, metro, drummer, resort, etc. All of them are high-quality fabrics and differ among themselves by the number of yarn used, density, weight and external design.

Half-woolen leotards, like pure-woolen leotards, are produced under different names: worsted, meteor, theme, motto, pick-up, mervis, flora, nouveau costume, etc.

All these tights differ among themselves in fiber composition (wool content), width, weight and external design. The content of wool in tights can vary within very large limits - from 16% (tights suit art. 1743) to 82% (tights pick-up)

Cheviots, like tights, are fabrics of twill or small-patterned weave, their front surface is slightly pile. Cheviots are produced mainly in plain colors. Most of the Cheviots are half-woolen, however, the Cheviots of some articles are also made with pure wool (Tbilisi, ladies' article No. 1495). The width of all-wool cheviots is 136 and 142 cm.

Half-woolen cheviots are produced under different names: worsted, Moscow, extra, first, second, third, fourth, etc.

The wool blend cheviots differ among themselves, first of all, in the wool content - from 28% (sixth cheviot) to 70% (worsted cheviot art. 52), as well as in width, weight and external design.

Boston - pure wool twill weave fabric is usually produced from twisted yarn. Certain articles of Boston have special names: serge, serch, etc.

Covercot is a twill weave fabric made of floss yarn of increased density on the basis, all-woolen and half-woolen.

Combed trousers are characterized by the presence of longitudinal stripes of various widths. They can be pure-woolen and half-woolen.

Coat fabrics include all-woolen fabrics (gabardine, carpetcoat, wave) and half-woolen fabrics (gabardine, carpetcoat) of increased weight.

Finely woven fabrics. The group of finely woven fabrics includes fabrics made from woolen yarn and having a pile or felt-like front covering, which completely or partially hide the weave pattern. The main typical fabrics in this group are broadcloths, tights, cheviots and drapes.

Cloth - fabrics of linen (in some cases, twill) weave with a felt-like layer that completely hides the pattern of the weave of the fabric. Cloths can be pure-woolen and half-woolen. All-woolen cloths include uniform, jacket, forage, trouser, castor. Half-woolen cloth, depending on the composition of the mixture, density and weight, are subdivided into a number of articles with various names: common, nodding, second-hand, second-hand, tenth, second-hand, twentieth, etc.

Tricot - fabrics of predominantly twill weave with a less dense felt-like front layer, only partially hiding the weave pattern. Leotards can be pure-woolen and half-woolen. Particularly diverse are semi-woolen tights produced under various names: floss, neva, bryansk, kharkovskoe, zavidovskoe, spring.

Tights of some articles (nov, corrugation, etual, coat, etc.) of increased weight constitute a special subgroup of fabrics for coats. This subgroup also includes pure-woolen fabrics similar to tights called fulle.

Cheviots are fabrics of twill weave with a slight crease, usually half-woolen on a cotton basis, one-colored or mottled. Like tights, Cheviots have different names (Serpukhovsky, Baltika, Dvina, Spartak, Klintsovsky, Shchelkovsky, etc.).

Drapes, as a rule, are fabrics of a complex (two-layer) weave, subject to strong crumbling and often naping, as a result of which they have a dense overlap, completely hiding the weave pattern. The assortment of drapes is quite diverse. High-quality pure-woolen drapes include: velor drape, ratin drape, deputy drape, castor drape, neva drape, ladies drape, etc. Half-woolen drapes include: serpukhov, seasonal, shchelkovsky, north, etc. drape.

Thin-cloth blankets have different names: jacquard, nobles, tiftik and children's jacquard. All these blankets are semi-woolen with a long thick pile. Jacquard blankets are dyed in bright colors, on the surface such blankets have patterns obtained with a shaped nap, the ends of the blankets are sheathed with silk braid. Noblesse blankets are produced on jacquard looms, using ducks of two or three colors, due to which the background and patterns on the front and back sides are of different colors; the edges of these blankets are swept with cotton yarn. Tiftik blankets are dyed in soft colors, and the border is different in color from the blanket itself. Baby blankets are made according to the type of noblesse blanket, but from wool of a different blend.

Rough cloth fabrics. Coarse-woven fabrics, like fine-woolen fabrics, are produced from woolen yarn. Such yarn is obtained from coarse wool and, as a rule, waste wool, waste and vegetable fibers are added to the mixture. The numbers of the yarn used to make coarse fabrics are often low.

This group includes fabrics of the same names as in the group of finely woven fabrics (broadcloth, tights, cheviot, drape), and, in addition, naped fabrics: beaver and bikinis.

Bobrik is characterized by the presence of a short dense standing pile, which is obtained by careful fleece and subsequent fixing it in an upright position.

A bike is a fabric with a smoothed recumbent pile, inferior in quality to a beaver.

Rough-cloth blankets, like fine-cloth blankets, are produced under various names: Ural, Semipalatinsk, Volga, Ukrainian, Sumy, etc. They differ in wool content, density, and external design.

Scarves. Shawls are divided into three main groups: cloth, combed (worsted) and cotton.

Cloth shawls are most often made from wool of a combined mixture, which includes semi-coarse wool, skimmed wool and cotton. The edge of the cloth shawls has a natural fringe. The surface of these shawls is brushed or smooth. By production, they distinguish between variegated-woven and plain-dyed woolen shawls. Depending on the size and nature of production, cloth shawls have different names: pole, northerner, Kamchatka, klyazma, polar, Kharkov, etc.

The group of cloth shawls also includes blankets and scarves. Plaid — a road blanket measuring 200X140 cm, with or without fringes. Scarves differ from shawls in smaller width (23-31 cm).

Combed (worsted) shawls, in turn, are subdivided according to a number of characteristics: fiber composition and production, nature of finishing, edge processing.

In terms of fiber composition and production, combed shawls are distinguished all-woolen and half-woolen.

By the nature of the finish, shawls can be plain dyed, printed, multicolored and embroidered. Printed shawls with a light soil (natural color of the wool) are called cream, and shawls with dark printed soil are called soil shawls.

According to the finishing of the edge, one can distinguish between combed shawls with and without fringes, the so-called debris.

Cotton scarves are of great variety. According to the finishing, these scarves are divided into plain dyed, printed, embroidered, multicolored, mélange, and according to the processing of the edge - into scarves with fringes and scree.

The assortment of woolen fabrics also includes dress and suiting fabrics from staple yarns, made from the type of woolen fabrics. Such fabrics include, in particular, a dress plaid and a suit tights.

Assortment of silk fabrics and piece goods

According to the price list, silk fabrics and piece goods are divided into the following eight groups: natural silk fabrics, natural silk fabrics with cotton yarn, rayon fabrics, staple rayon fabrics, rayon fabrics with natural silk, rayon fabrics with cotton yarn, pile fabrics, piece goods.

Each of these groups of fabrics (except for piece goods), in turn, is divided into subgroups, and then into separate types (names).

By the nature of the finish, silk fabrics are distinguished: bleached, one-colored, multicolored and printed. Printed fabrics (with the exception of pile fabrics), depending on the number of paint colors in the drawing, are divided into value groups, denoted by letters. So, pure silk fabrics made of natural silk, having up to three colors in the pattern, are referred to group A, up to six colors - to group B and over six colors, as well as with an airbrush - to group C. Printed fabrics of all other groups with the number of paint colors in the figure, up to three belong to group D and more than three - to group D.

Natural silk fabrics... This group unites a fairly wide range of pure silk fabrics for various purposes (dress, gown, furniture, tie) and is subdivided into five subgroups: crepe, linen, satin, shaped, technical fabrics.

The subgroup of crepe fabrics includes a significant number of fabrics that have a peculiar, wavy surface, which is formed as a result of the use of weft and sometimes the main thread of crepe (high) twist in the production of these fabrics.

The names of fabrics of this subgroup are most often complex, as a rule, they begin with the word "crepe", for example: crepe-chiffon, crepe-georgette, crepe de Chine, crepe-parisienne, crepe-satin, crepe-corrugation, crepe-armoure, etc. They differ from each other. these fabrics are by the nature of the yarn used, thickness, density. So, for example, crepe chiffon has a crepe twist in the base and weft, and crepe de Chine only in the weft. Crepe georgette, in contrast to crepe chiffon, is made of silk, not two, but three and four strands. Crepe satin is characterized by density and satin weave.

The subgroup of plain fabrics unites a number of fabrics, mainly plain weave, made from spun silk, as well as from silk of simple twists. These fabrics include linen, toile, foulard, tussle, tussor, etc. Linen is especially widespread, which is produced by bleaching, multi-colored, one-colored and printed. Toile and foulare are similar to linen, but somewhat softer and usually thinner. Tussor is a fabric made of twisted threads of oak silkworm.

The subgroup of satin fabrics includes silk fabrics, mainly satin and twill weaves: dress satin, satin, cashmere, diagonal costume, etc.

The subgroup of shaped fabrics includes fabrics mainly of jacquard weave used for lining, dressing gowns, furniture upholstery, ties: Mongolian lady, Indhun, Mongolian sashes, damask. Among themselves, these fabrics differ mainly in the nature of the weaving pattern.

The subgroup of technical fabrics unites several types of fabrics for special purposes (linen, gauze-chiffon, excelsior, tie fabric).

Natural silk fabrics with cotton yarn.

This group includes fabrics in which one of the systems of threads, usually weft, is made of cotton yarn; their assortment is relatively small; it is combined into two subgroups - satin stitch and shaped fabrics.

The subgroup of satin fabrics includes fabrics of satin, twill, plain and small-patterned weaves. The main ones are: satin and liberty (satin weave), twill and sur (twill weave), poplin (plain weave with a rep effect), as well as such multicolored fabrics used mainly in the republics of Central Asia, such as peken, bekasab, shoi -buttermilk.

Shaped fabrics are usually produced in jacquard weave with various patterns. These include: a lady (with patterns along the satin field), shaped poplin (with patterns along the rep field), Indihun, etc.

Artificial silk fabrics. This group includes fabrics based and weft of artificial rayon or acetate silk threads. The very diverse assortment of these fabrics is grouped into four subgroups: crepe, satin stitch, shaped, specialty and technical fabrics.

Crepe fabrics are characterized by the presence of high twist silk in the warp and weft or only in the weft (in some cases, only in the warp). A number of names of fabrics of this subgroup are similar to the names of crepe fabrics made from natural silk, for example: crepe georgette, crepe de chine, crepe armur, crepe satin, faydeshin. Along with this, there is a significant number of fabrics bearing other names: crepe-granite, crepe-cashmere, crepe-cloquet, crepe-wave, crepe-victoria, crepe-morocin, georgette-pique, georgette-cloquet, diagonal, panama, caramena , Ottomans, etc.

The subgroup of satin stitching fabrics includes fabrics made with linen, twill and finely patterned weaves from silk of weaker twists. Their assortment is less diverse than crepe fabrics. The most common fabrics are marquise, linen, plaid, pongee, pique. This subgroup also includes a number of multicolored (striped and checkered) oriental fabrics with various names: chepetou, alacha, ketans, suasans.

The fancy fabric subgroup includes a relatively small number of jacquard weave fabrics with various weaving patterns. These include: dudun (patterns along the headset field), tavar (patterns along the satin field), alpacas (patterns along the rep field), damasse, etc.

The subgroup of special and technical fabrics includes: tie pongee, umbrella fabric and impregnated plaid.

Staple rayon fabrics. The fabrics of this group are characterized by the fact that they use staple silk for the warp and weft, only for the weft or only for the warp. Their assortment is constantly expanding. There are four subgroups of staple silk fabrics: crepe, linen, satin and shaped.

The subgroup of crepe fabrics, as usual, includes fabrics from silk of increased twist: May Day crepe and dress crepe.

The subgroup of linen fabrics includes fabrics such as linen, poplin, decorative reps.

The subgroup of satin fabrics combines satin weave fabrics (satin, satin double) and twill (twill, cashmere).

The subgroup of shaped fabrics includes Tavar fabric.

Artificial silk fabrics with natural. The peculiarity of the fabrics of this group is that artificial and natural silk in various combinations are used for their production. The fabrics from artificial silk with natural are grouped into four subgroups: crepe, satin stitch, shaped, special and technical.

In the subgroup of crepe fabrics, as usual, fabrics are combined that have high twist silk in the warp and weft or only in the weft. These fabrics include crepe de Chine, crepe corrugation, multicolored crepe, lace georgette, etc.

The subgroup of satin stitching fabrics includes fabrics such as linen, pongee, boucle tricotin, atlas, etc.

The subgroup of shaped fabrics includes jacquard fabrics - lady, etc.

The subgroup of special and technical fabrics includes: tie crepe and tie fabric.

Rayon fabrics with cotton yarns. This group brings together a fairly diverse assortment of fabrics, which usually use artificial silk for the warp and cotton yarn for the weft.

In some cases, for the production of fabrics from rayon with cotton yarn, combined yarn is used for the warp, and silk for the weft. There are three subgroups in this group: satin stitch, shaped, special and technical fabrics.

The subgroup of satin stitching fabrics includes fabrics mainly lining and decorative. The former include such fabrics as satin, liberty, satin-double (satin weave fabrics), twill (twill weave), radome (finely patterned weave), poplin (plain weave), etc. Decorative fabrics are such as decorative reps, fabric curtain, reps curtain, etc.

The subgroup of shaped fabrics, as usual, combines jacquard weave fabrics - lady, shaped poplin, dudong, etc.

The subgroup of special and technical fabrics includes radio fabric, that is, fabric for radio receivers and loudspeakers.

Pile fabrics. Fabrics of this group have on the front side a pile made of natural or artificial silk, obtained by cutting a part of the warp threads. The main pile fabrics are velvet and plush. Velvet is a fabric with a short dense pile made of natural or artificial silk. Plush has a longer pile and can be of several types: smooth, embossed, shaped, plush fur, plush cat, etc.

Piece silk products. This group includes various piece products made of natural or artificial silk: scarves, bedspreads, curtains, etc.

Articles on fabric

Articles for cotton, linen and woolen fabrics are designated by serial numbers, and for each group of fabrics free article numbers are left for new fabrics.

The articles of silk fabrics are designated by a conventional cipher consisting of four numbers. The first number shows the group of fabrics, the second - the subgroup, the third and fourth - the serial number of the fabric according to the price list. So, for example, article number 1101, relating to crepe-chiffon, shows that this fabric of the first group (made of natural silk), the first subgroup (crepe fabric) and is listed as the first number among the fabrics of this subgroup.

Sorting fabrics

In terms of quality, cotton and linen fabrics are currently divided into grades: 1st, 2nd and 3rd, and woolen and silk fabrics - into grades: 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th. The standards also provide for an extra variety.

The grade of fabrics depends on the presence of defects in their appearance and deviations from the established technical indicators.

The defects in the appearance of fabrics include defects in raw materials, yarn, weaving and finishing. The defects of raw materials are: the presence of dead, poorly colored fibers, various vegetable impurities (remnants of bolls, fires, etc.), nodules, flagella and other fiber defects. Vices of yarn include: uneven thickness of the yarn (overlapping), knobbiness, grease, etc. The main defects of weaving and finishing of fabrics are: close - breaking of one or two warp threads; podletina - breakage of three or more warp threads; undercut - sparse stripes along the weft, formed as a result of weak nailing of the weft to the edge of the fabric; nick - a vice opposite to undercut; different wefts - transverse stripes from an uneven weft in thickness; weft looping - loops formed most often with excessively twisted yarn; uneven color - light or dark stripes; click - paint blot in printed fabrics; serif - the absence of a printed pattern due to a fold formed in the fabric during printing; raster - discrepancy between individual parts of a printed design.

Defects in appearance that are common throughout a piece of tissue (knobbiness, oily, dead fiber, etc.) are called common, and defects that occur only in certain areas of tissue are called local.

Local gross defects that interfere with the use of fabrics or sharply worsen their appearance (holes, under-flaps, pronounced spots, etc.) should be cut out in production, and the number of cuts in a piece of fabric should not exceed the maximum norm, and the length of each cut should not be below the norms established by the standard. So, for example, in cotton fabrics, the number of cuts is allowed no more than four (in a piece longer than 43 m), and the length of the cut should be at least 1.5 m for fabrics wider than 80 cm, 2.5 m for fabrics 66-80 cm wide and 3.0 m for fabrics up to 65 cm wide.

The above gross defects should be cut out and in trade enterprises, moreover, the cutting lines from the location of the defect should pass at a distance of no more than 1 cm. The cut out places are sent to the supplier, who is obliged to pay for them in threefold (silk), fourfold (woolen) and tenfold (cotton and linen) size.

The physical and mechanical indicators of fabrics provided for by GOST include width, density, weight of 1 m 2, tensile strength, and for woolen fabrics, in addition, fat content, shrinkage at the lobe, the amount of cellulose fibers.

Checking the compliance of the fabric with this standard or technical specifications, as well as checking the strength of the color of the fabric is carried out in a laboratory way.

Sorting of tissues is carried out according to a point system, the essence of which is that each defect (defect) found in a piece of tissue is evaluated with a certain point. The size of the score depends on the nature of the defect (the effect of this defect on the quality of the tissue is taken into account), as well as on which tissue

it is discovered. So, for example, the thinner the tissue on which the defect is found, the higher its score is. Points are used to assess both appearance defects and deviations from the established technical indicators, and of these indicators, the one that is assessed with a high score is taken into account.

The points for defects in appearance and one of the points (higher) for deviations from technical indicators are added up and the grade of fabric is set according to their sum. For each grade of fabric, the standard sets a limit on the number of points. So, for example, for cotton fabrics, the 1st grade includes fabrics with defects estimated not higher than 10 points, the 2nd - not higher than 20 points, and the 3rd - not higher than 60 points.

The specified maximum number of points falls on a piece of the conventional, established by the standard, length. For narrow cotton (up to 80 cm) fabrics, the conditional length of a piece is 40 m, for medium (up to 99 cm) - 30 m, for wide (over 99 cm) - 24 m and for pile fabrics - 20 m. more or less conditional, then the sum of points for local defects in appearance is recalculated accordingly. Scores for common appearance defects and deviations from technical indicators are not recalculated.

Folding, labeling, packaging and storage of fabrics

Fold... A fold is the design of a fabric into pieces of a certain shape. The types of folds of fabrics are very diverse; the use of one or another type of fold for various fabrics is provided for by special standards. Distinguish between folds of fabrics with headquarters and knurling. In the first case, the finished fabric is pre-folded using special machines with headquarters 1 m or 0.75 m long; the resulting staffs are folded. In the second case, the fabric is rolled onto pieces of plywood or cardboard.

There are also single and double folds. The double fold is used for wide fabrics and consists in folding the fabrics in half lengthwise (sometimes fourfold). The folded pieces of fabric are stitched or tied for stability.

The length of the fabric in a piece may vary; It depends primarily on the width. So, for cotton fabrics, the length of a piece is 20 (for pile fabrics), 25 and 40 m, for linen fabrics - 25, 30 and 35 m, for woolen fabrics - 30 and 45 m, and for silk fabrics - 25 and 40 m. A piece of fabric can consist of several sections, the minimum length of which also depends on the width of the fabric. Shorter lengths are called a measured or weight flap.

Marking. The fabric is marked by branding, as well as by sewing on or gluing labels to a piece of fabric. The stamp must contain the name of the factory and the number of the referee. Stamps are put on the ends of each cut included in the piece, from the inside of the fabric; the brand should be easily washed off with water and should not pass to the right side of the fabric. The labels contain an indication of the company that produced the fabric, its name, finish, article number, width, grade, retail price, release date, referee number, piece length, number of cuts.

Package. Packing fabrics, measured and weight rags in bales or boxes. In the first case, pieces of fabric in a certain assortment are piled into bales, which are first covered on all sides with paper, and then with investment cloth or matting. The bale is pressed and tied with steel strap or wire, the edges of the wrapping fabric or matting are firmly stitched. In the boxes lined with paper, they usually put silk fabrics, pile cotton, linen terry, etc. After the lid is nailed to the box, it is covered with wire.

Storage. Warehouses for storing fabrics should be clean, dry, with uniform diffused natural or artificial lighting. The relative humidity in these rooms should be no higher than 60-65%.

When stored in a warehouse, fabrics should be laid on wooden pads, protected from dust, pollution and direct sunlight; you need to transport fabrics around the warehouse on special trolleys.

Much attention should be paid to the control of moths and rodents during tissue storage.