On September 9, 1952, signed by I.V. Stalin Resolution of the Council of Ministers of the USSR on the creation of a nuclear submarine (PLA). The general management of research and development work on the facility was assigned to the CCGT under the Council of Ministers of the USSR (B.L. Vannikov, A.P. Zavenyagin, I.V. (V.A.Malyshev, B.G. Chilikin). The scientific leader of the work on the creation of an integrated nuclear power plant (NPP) was appointed A.P. Aleksandrov, chief designer of the nuclear power plant - N.A. Dollezhal, the chief designer of the boat was V.N. Peregudov.

To supervise the work and consider scientific and design issues related to the construction of the submarine, Section No. 8 was organized under the Scientific and Technical Council of the PSU, headed by V.A. Malyshev. Along with the Kurchatov Institute, the main work on the nuclear power plant was entrusted to Laboratory "B", and its director D.I. Blokhintsev was appointed deputy scientific supervisor. By a resolution of the Council of Ministers, Laboratory "B" was entrusted with the execution of computational and theoretical work, the development of fuel elements, the construction and testing of an experimental submarine reactor.

The first and most important task was the choice of the type of reactor as the main source of energy, as well as the general appearance of the power plant. At first, these were reactors based on graphite and beryllium moderators with heat-generating pipes carrying pressure, similar in type to the First NPP under construction at that time. Somewhat later, installations arose in which heavy water was the moderator. And only then (and at that rate it was one month!) A pressurized pressurized water reactor appeared.

Thus, from the very beginning, Laboratory B considered two options for nuclear power plants for submarines: with a water coolant and a lead-bismuth liquid metal coolant. On the initiative of A.I. Leipunsky, work on the creation of transport nuclear installations was started in Laboratory "B" back in 1949.

By this time, it was known that work was underway in the United States on two types of installations: thermal reactors with pressurized water and intermediate neutron reactors with sodium coolant. Therefore, work on the creation of power plants for nuclear submarines was deployed in two directions: pressurized water reactors and reactors with a liquid metal coolant.

The choice of a lead-bismuth eutectic alloy as a coolant for nuclear reactors was made by A.I. Leipunsky even before the beginning of the deployment of work in the USSR on nuclear submarines. As he recalls chief designer YaEU N.A. Dollezhal: “This option was especially supported by D.I. Blokhintsev, then director of Laboratory "B" in Obninsk, where Academician Alexander Ilyich Leipunsky worked on the use of technology fast neutrons... His idea was that it was possible to create a nuclear power plant for a submarine, in the reactor of which a liquid metal (for example, an alloy of lead and bismuth) would be used as a coolant, and it could be heated to a sufficiently high temperature without creating pressure. A.I. Leipunsky was an outstanding scientist, and there was no reason to doubt the seriousness of his proposals. "

A.I. Leipunsky, and after his death in 1972 - B.F. Gromov. Projects of serial reactor plants for submarines were developed by OKB Gidropress (Podolsk) and OKBM (Nizhny Novgorod), and the designs of the ships themselves were developed by the St. Petersburg Marine Engineering Bureau (SPMBM) Malakhit.

Unlike the Americans, A.I. Leipunsky proposed and substantiated a lead-bismuth eutectic alloy as a coolant, despite its inferior thermophysical properties in comparison with sodium. Subsequent experience in the development of these competing areas confirmed the correctness of the choice he made. (After several accidents at the prototype ground stand and an experimental submarine, work in the United States in this direction was terminated.)

One of the first problems arose at the very beginning of work in substantiating the neutronic characteristics of a reactor with an intermediate neutron spectrum, which was formed in the core, due to the large neutron leakage caused by the small size of the reactor and the use of a beryllium moderator. A.I. Leipunsky put before V.A. Kuznetsov, the task of creating a critical assembly on which it would be possible to test the methods and constants for calculating the intermediate reactor. Such a critical assembly was created in 1954. But on March 11, 1954, during the critical mass gain, the reactor accelerated on prompt neutrons. A.I. Leipunsky and all the physicists involved in the experiment were urgently hospitalized in Moscow.

The problem could be solved only with the presence of large-scale experimental stands, on which the equipment would be tested in conditions close to full-scale ones. Therefore, in 1953, on the basis of Laboratory B, the construction of full-scale prototype stands of nuclear power plants with water cooling (stand 27 / VM) and liquid metal cooling (stand 27 / VT) began, which were put into operation in 1956 and 1959, respectively. These stands were the reactor and turbine compartments of nuclear submarines. For a long time, they became the main experimental base of the IPPE and the Kurchatov Institute for testing new types of reactors, as well as the base of the Obninsky training center Navy for training submarine crews.

Cruising nuclear submarine K-27 (project 645)

The first Soviet cruising nuclear submarine K-27 (project 645) with a liquid metal-cooled nuclear power plant successfully passed state tests in 1963. In 1964, she made a long voyage to the equatorial Atlantic, during which (for the first time in the Soviet Navy) she covered 12,278 miles in 1240 sailing hours (51 days) without surfacing. The boat commander I.I. Gulyaev was awarded the title of Hero of the Soviet Union. The sailors praised the nuclear power plant. One of the creators of the nuclear power plant, chief engineer of stand 27 / VT K.I. Karikh. In 1965, the K-27 made a second cruise, becoming the first Soviet nuclear submarine to secretly penetrate the Mediterranean Sea.

At this time, the creation of a series of boats of the second generation with nuclear power plants, using a lead-bismuth liquid metal coolant, was launched. In the early 1960s, in connection with the creation and launching of combat patrols in the ocean of US submarine missile carriers, which were called "city killers" in the Western world (by the type of target selection - their missiles were aimed at our cities), the USSR made a decision on the creation of special anti-submarine submarines. One of the points of the program was the task of building a small high-speed automated submarine destroyer, i.e. fighter "city killers".

The design of a nuclear submarine of Project 705 (Soviet code "Lira") began after the release of the Resolution of the Central Committee of the CPSU and the Council of Ministers of the USSR in the summer of 1960. The main task is to create a highly maneuverable, high-speed, small displacement submarine with nuclear power plants, with a titanium hull, with a sharp reduction in the number crew, with the introduction of new types of weapons and technical equipment.

The most important element of the steam generating installation of the new boat was a lead-bismuth nuclear reactor developed under the scientific supervision of the IPPE. Heavy biological shielding and low steam parameters of a nuclear power plant with a pressurized water reactor (at that time) led to a large specific gravity of the reactor facility. The new reactor with a liquid metal coolant made it possible to reduce the displacement, the diameter of the strong hull and the length of the submarine, and to increase the underwater speed. Due to this, the fundamental differences of the new steam generating plant were compactness, block layout, high degree of automation and maneuverability, good economic and weight and dimensions.

Nuclear submarine project 705

A special place in the development of reactors with a lead-bismuth coolant was occupied by the problem of the technology of this coolant. This phrase refers to the methods of monitoring and maintaining the required quality of the coolant and the cleanliness of the primary circuit during the operation of the reactor plant. The importance of this problem was realized after the reactor accident on the K-27 boat in May 1968. Appropriate methods and devices for maintaining the quality of the coolant were developed when the construction of the planned series of submarines of projects 705 and 705K was completed.

The first cruising submarine of the new type K-64 was put into trial operation in December 1971. And although only six ships of this type were in combat in the fleet, the appearance of a new Soviet anti-submarine submarine in the ocean made a lot of noise and became an unpleasant surprise for the US Navy. American submarine strategic missile carriers were placed in a difficult tactical position. The small size of the Project 705 submarines, a significant range of diving depths, and a high full speed allowed it to maneuver at maximum speed, which is impossible for all other types of submarines, and even evade anti-submarine torpedoes. The ships of this project for their speed and maneuverability were included in the "Guinness Book of Records".

“Now, looking back,” writes R.A. Shmakov, - it should be admitted that this boat was a project of the XXI century. She was ahead of her time by several decades. Therefore, it is not surprising that for many specialists, testers, and personnel of the Navy, it turned out to be too difficult to master and operate. "

“The idea of ​​creating such a boat, which became the submarine of project 705, - said the deputy chief designer of the project B.V. Grigoriev, - could be realized only in the 1960s, when Soviet society was on the rise, new areas of research and development were opening up, and the country's defense was the most important state priority. " “Project 705 nuclear submarine,” according to the definition of the Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee and the USSR Minister of Defense D.F. Ustinov, - has become a national task, has become an attempt to make a breakthrough to achieve military-technical superiority over the Western bloc. "

The commanders and officers of submarines with reactor installations developed at IPPE gave a very high assessment to the submarine itself and its nuclear power plant, calling it a "miracle boat" well ahead of its time.

Today it can be considered generally accepted that at the IPPE under the leadership of A.I. Leipunsky, the foundations of a new direction of nuclear power were laid, and a unique reactor technology was demonstrated on an industrial scale. This made it possible to ensure the compactness of the reactor plant, which is important when creating submarines of limited displacement, to ensure high maneuverability, and to increase the reliability and safety of the reactor plant.

A great contribution to the development of this direction was made by A.A. Bakulevsky, B.F. Gromov, K.I. Karikh, V.A. Kuznetsov, I.M. Kurbatov, V.A. Malykh, G.I. Marchuk, D.M. Ovechkin, Yu.I. Orlov, D.V. Pankratov, Yu.A. Prokhorov, V.N. Stepanov, V.I. Subbotin, G.I. Toshinsky, A.P. Trifonov, V.V. Chekunov and many others.

In the 50s, a new era began in submarine shipbuilding - the use of atomic energy for the movement of submarines. In terms of their properties, atomic energy sources are the most suitable for submarines, since, without the need for atmospheric air or oxygen reserves, they make it possible to obtain energy for an almost unlimited time and in the required amount.

In addition to solving the problem with regard to prolonged movement in a submerged position with a high speed of travel, the use of an atomic source has removed restrictions on the supply of energy to such relatively capacious consumers as devices and life support systems (air conditioners, electrolysers, etc.), navigation, hydroacoustics and control weapons. The prospect of using submarines in the Arctic regions under ice has opened up. With the introduction of nuclear power, the duration of continuous submersion of submarines began to be limited, as shown by many years of experience, mainly by the psychophysical capabilities of the crews.

At the same time, from the very beginning of the introduction of nuclear power plants (NPPs), the emerging new complex problems also became clear: the need to ensure reliable radiation protection of personnel, increased requirements for the professional training of personnel serving nuclear power plants, the need for a more developed than for diesel-electric Submarines, infrastructure (basing, repair, delivery and reloading of nuclear fuel, disposal of spent nuclear fuel, etc.). Later, as experience was accumulated, other negative aspects came to light: the increased noise of nuclear submarines (NPS), the severity of the consequences of accidents at nuclear power plants and boats with such installations, the complexity of the decommissioning and disposal of old nuclear submarines.

The first proposals from atomic scientists and naval sailors on the use of atomic energy for the movement of boats both in the United States and in the USSR began to arrive at the end of the 1940s. Deployment practical work began with the creation of projects for submarines with nuclear power plants and the construction of ground stands and prototypes of these installations.

The first nuclear submarine in the world was built in the United States - "Nautilus" - and entered service in September 1954. In January 1959, after the completion of tests, the first Soviet nuclear submarine of Project 627 was accepted into operation by the Soviet Navy. The main characteristics of these nuclear submarines are given in Table. one.

With the commissioning of the first nuclear submarines, almost without interruption, a gradual increase in the pace of their construction began. At the same time, the practical development of the use of atomic energy during the operation of nuclear submarines, the search for the optimal appearance of the nuclear power plant and the submarines themselves went on.

Table 1

* Equal to the sum of the surface displacement and the mass of water in the fully filled main ballast tanks.
** For American nuclear submarines (hereinafter), the test depth, which is close in meaning to the limit.

Rice. 6. The first domestic serial nuclear submarine (project 627 A)

circuit of a nuclear reactor. Along with water with a high degree of purification, which was used in the reactors of the first nuclear submarines, an attempt was made to use for this purpose a metal or an alloy of metals with a relatively low melting point (sodium, etc.). The designers saw the advantage of such a coolant, first of all, in the ability to reduce the pressure in the primary circuit, increase the coolant temperature and, in general, gain a gain in the dimensions of the reactor, which is extremely important in the conditions of its use on the submarine.

Rice. 7. The first American nuclear submarine "Nautilus"

This idea was implemented on the second American nuclear submarine Seawolf after Nautilus, built in 1957. It used the S2G reactor with a liquid metal (sodium) coolant. However, in practice, the advantages of a liquid metal coolant turned out to be not as significant as expected, but in terms of reliability and

Rice. 8. The first domestic nuclear submarine "Leninsky Komsomol" (project 627)

the complexity of operation, this type of reactors was significantly inferior to the pressurized water reactor (with pressurized water in the primary circuit).

Already in 1960, due to a number of malfunctions revealed during operation, the liquid metal coolant reactor at the Seawolf nuclear submarine was replaced by the S2WA pressurized water reactor, which was an improved modification of the NautiIus nuclear submarine reactor.

In 1963, in the USSR, the nuclear submarine of project 645 was introduced into the fleet, also equipped with a reactor with a liquid metal coolant, in which a lead-bismuth alloy was used. In the first years after construction, this submarine was successfully operated. However, she did not show any decisive advantages over the nuclear submarines under construction with pressurized water reactors. At the same time, the operation of a reactor with a liquid metal coolant, especially its basic maintenance, caused certain difficulties. Serial construction of nuclear submarines of this type was not carried out, it remained in a single copy and was in the fleet until 1968.

Along with the introduction of nuclear power plants on the submarines and the equipment directly related to them, there was a change in their other elements. The first American nuclear submarine, although it was larger than the DPL, differed little from them in appearance: it had a pin bow end and a developed superstructure with an extended flat deck. The shape of the hull of the first domestic nuclear submarine already had a number of characteristic differences from the submarine. In particular, its bow end was given well-streamlined underwater contours, having a semi-ellipse outline and close to circular cross-sections. The fencing of retractable devices (periscopes, RPD devices, antennas, etc.), as well as the hatch and bridge shafts were made in the form of a streamlined body like a limousine, hence the name "limousine" form, which later became traditional for fencing in many types of domestic nuclear submarines.

To make the most of all the possibilities for improving the tactical and technical characteristics due to the use of nuclear power plants, studies were launched to optimize the shape of the hull, architecture and design, controllability when moving in a submerged position at high speeds, automation of control under these modes, navigation support and habitability in conditions of prolonged diving without surfacing.

A number of issues were solved using specially built experimental and experimental non-nuclear and atomic submarines. In particular, in solving the problems of controllability and propulsion of nuclear submarines, an important role was played by the experimental submarine "Albacore" built in the USA in 1953, which had a hull shape close to optimal in terms of minimizing water resistance when moving in a submerged position (the ratio of length to width was about 7.4). Below are the characteristics of the submarine "Albacore":

Dimensions, m:
length................................................. ............................................. 62.2
width................................................. ............................................ 8,4
Displacement, t:
surface ................................................. ..................................... 1500
underwater ................................................. .................................... 1850
Power plant:
power of diesel generators, hp s ......................................... 1700
electric motor power *, hp from ............................ about 15000
number of propeller shafts ............................................... .......................one
Full submerged speed, knots ............................................ ..33
Test immersion depth, m ............................................ 185
Crew, people ............................................... ............................................ 52

* With a silver-zinc rechargeable battery.

This submarine was re-equipped several times and was used for a long time to develop propellers (including coaxial counter-rotating propellers), controls when moving at high speeds, new types of TA and other tasks.

The introduction of the nuclear power plant on submarines coincided with the development of a number of fundamentally new types of weapons: cruise missiles (CR) for firing along the coast and for hitting sea targets, later - ballistic missiles (BR), means of long-range radar detection of air targets.

Advances in the creation of land-based and sea-based ballistic missiles led to a revision of the role and place of both land and sea weapons systems, which was reflected in the formation of the type of nuclear submarines. In particular, the CDs intended for firing along the coast have gradually lost their importance. As a result, the United States limited itself to the construction of only one Halibut nuclear submarine and two submarines - Grayback and Grow-ler - with the Regulus cruise missile, and the nuclear submarines built in the USSR with a cruise missile to destroy coastal targets were subsequently converted into nuclear submarines with only a torpedo weapons.

In a single copy, the nuclear submarine of the Triton radar patrol, built in the United States during these years, was designed for early detection of air targets with the help of especially powerful radar stations. This submarine is also notable for the fact that of all American nuclear submarines, it was the only one that had two reactors (all other US nuclear submarines are single-reactor).

The world's first launch of a ballistic missile from a submarine was made in the USSR in September 1955. The R-11 FM rocket was launched from a converted submarine from a surface position. With the same submarine, five years later, the first in the USSR launch of a ballistic missile from a submerged position was made.

Since the end of the 50s, the process of introducing BR on submarines began. First, a small-missile nuclear submarine was created (the dimensions of the first domestic marine ballistic missiles on liquid fuel did not allow the creation of a multi-rocket nuclear submarine at once). The first domestic nuclear submarine with three ballistic missiles launched from the surface position was commissioned in 1960 (by this time several domestic nuclear powered submarines with ballistic missiles had been built).

In the United States, based on the successes achieved in the field of naval ballistic missiles, they immediately went to the creation of a multi-missile nuclear submarine with support for the launch of missiles from a submerged position. This was facilitated by the Polaris solid fuel ballistic missile program, which was successfully implemented in those years. Moreover, to shorten the construction period of the first missile carrier, the hull of the serial nuclear submarine that was under construction at that time was used.

Rice. 9. Nuclear submarine missile carrier type "George Washington"

with torpedo armament of the "Skipjack" type. This missile carrier, named "George Washington", entered service in December 1959. The first domestic multi-missile nuclear submarine (Project 667A) with 16 ballistic missiles launched from a submerged position entered service in 1967. In Great Britain, the first nuclear missile carrier, created with a wide using American experience, was commissioned in 1968, in France - in 1974. The characteristics of the first nuclear submarines with ballistic missiles are given in Table. 2

In the years that followed since the creation of the first submarines, there was a continuous improvement of this new type of naval weapons: an increase in the flight range of naval ballistic missiles to intercontinental, an increase in the rate of firing of missiles up to a salvo, the adoption into service of ballistic missiles with multiple warheads (MIRVs), which have consisting of several warheads, each of which can be guided to its own target, an increase on some types of missile carriers of missile ammunition up to 20-24.

table 2

The fusion of nuclear power and intercontinental ballistic missiles gave submarines, in addition to their initial advantage (stealth), a fundamentally new quality - the ability to hit targets deep in enemy territory. This turned the nuclear submarine into the most important component of strategic weapons, occupying almost the main place in the strategic triad due to its mobility and high survivability.

At the end of the 60s, the USSR created nuclear submarines of a fundamentally new type - multi-missile submarines - carriers of the CD with an underwater launch. The emergence and subsequent development of these nuclear submarines, which had no analogues in the foreign navy, was a real counterweight to the most powerful surface warships - strike aircraft carriers, including those with nuclear power plants.

Rice. 10. Nuclear submarine missile carrier (project 667A)

At the turn of the 60s, in addition to rocketization, another important direction arose in the development of nuclear submarines - increasing their secrecy from detection, primarily by other submarines, and improving the means of lighting the underwater situation to outstrip the enemy in detection.

Due to the peculiarities of the environment in which the submarines operate, the noise reduction of submarines and the range of action of the hydroacoustic devices installed on them act as the determining factors in the problem of secrecy and detection. It is the improvement of these qualities that most strongly influenced the formation of the technical appearance that modern nuclear submarines have acquired.

In the interests of solving the problems arising in these areas, many countries have deployed an unprecedented program of research and development work, including the development of new low-noise mechanisms and propellers, carrying out tests of serial nuclear submarines under special programs, re-equipment of built nuclear submarines with the introduction of new technical solutions on them. and finally, the creation of nuclear submarines with power plants of a fundamentally new type. The latter include, in particular, the American nuclear submarine Tillibee, which was commissioned in 1960. This nuclear submarine was distinguished by a set of measures aimed at reducing noise and increasing the efficiency of sonar weapons. Instead of the main steam turbine with a gearbox used as an engine on the serially built nuclear submarines at that time, a full electric propulsion scheme was implemented at Tullibee - a special propeller electric motor and turbine generators of the corresponding power were installed. In addition, for the first time for a nuclear submarine, a hydroacoustic complex with a spherical bow antenna of increased size was used, and in this regard, a new layout of torpedo tubes: closer to the middle of the submarine's length and at an angle of 10-12 ° to its diametrical plane.

When designing "Tillibee" it was planned that it would become the leading one in a series of nuclear submarines of a new type, specially designed for anti-submarine operations. However, these intentions were not realized, although many of the technical means and solutions used and worked out on it (hydroacoustic complex, torpedo launcher layout, etc.) were immediately extended to serial Thresher-class nuclear submarines under construction in the 60s.

Following Tillibee, two more experimental nuclear submarines were built to develop new technical solutions to improve acoustic secrecy: in 1967, the Jack submarine with a gearless (direct-acting) turbine installation and coaxial propellers of the opposite direction of rotation (similar to those used on torpedoes) and in 1969 the nuclear submarine "Narwhal", equipped with nuclear reactor a new type with an increased level of natural circulation of the primary coolant. This reactor, as expected, will have a reduced level of noise emissions due to a decrease in the power of the primary circulation pumps. The first of these solutions has not been developed, and as for the new type of reactor, the results obtained have found application in the development of reactors for serial nuclear submarines of subsequent years of construction.

In the 70s, American specialists again returned to the idea of ​​using a full electric propulsion scheme on nuclear submarines. In 1974, the construction of the Glenard P. Lipscomb nuclear submarine with a turboelectric power plant was completed as part of turbine generators and electric motors. However, this nuclear submarine was not accepted for mass production. The characteristics of the nuclear submarines "Tillibee" and "Glenard P. Lipscomb" are given in table. 3.

Refusal to "replicate" nuclear submarines with full electric propulsion indicates that the gain in noise reduction, if it took place on nuclear submarines of this type, did not compensate for the deterioration of other characteristics associated with the introduction of electric propulsion, primarily due to the impossibility of creating electric motors of the required power and acceptable dimensions and, as a consequence, a decrease in the full underwater speed in comparison with nuclear submarines with turbo-ductor installations, which are close in terms of creation.

Table 3

In any case, the tests of the Glenard P. Lipscomb nuclear submarine were still underway, and the assembly of the Los Angeles nuclear submarine with a conventional steam turbine unit, the lead nuclear submarine in one of the largest series of boats in the history of American shipbuilding, had already begun on the slipway. The project of this nuclear submarine was created as an alternative to Glenard Lipscomb and turned out to be more successful, as a result of which it was accepted for serial construction.

The world practice of submarine shipbuilding knows so far only one exception, when the full electric propulsion scheme was implemented not on one experimental submarine, but on several serial nuclear submarines. These are six French nuclear submarines of the Rubis and Amethyste types, commissioned in 1983-1993.

The problem of acoustic secrecy of nuclear submarines has not become dominant in all countries at the same time. Another important area of ​​improvement of nuclear submarines in the 60s was considered the achievement of the highest possible speed of the underwater course. Since the possibilities of reducing the resistance of water to movement by optimizing the shape of the hull were by this time largely exhausted, and other fundamentally new solutions to this problem did not give real practical results, there was only one way to increase the speed of the submarine's underwater movement - increasing their power-to-weight ratio (measured by the ratio power used to move the installation to the displacement). Initially, this problem was solved directly, i.e. due to the creation and use of nuclear power plants of significantly increased power. Later, in the 70s, the designers took the path of a simultaneous, but not so significant, increase in the power of the nuclear power plant and a decrease in the displacement of nuclear submarines, in particular, due to a sharp increase in the level of automation of control and a reduction in the number of the crew in this regard.

The practical implementation of these directions led to the creation in the USSR of several nuclear submarines with a speed of more than 40 knots, that is, much higher than that of the bulk of nuclear submarines, which are simultaneously being built in the USSR and in the West. The record for the speed of a full underwater course - almost 45 knots - was achieved in 1969 during tests of the Russian nuclear submarine with project 661 CD.

Another characteristic feature of the development of nuclear submarines is a more or less monotonous increase in diving depth in time. Over the years that have elapsed since the commissioning of the first nuclear submarines, the submersion depth, as can be seen from the data below for serial nuclear submarines of the last years of construction, has more than doubled. Of the combat nuclear submarines, the Russian experimental nuclear submarine Komsomolets, built in the mid-1980s, had the greatest diving depth (about 1000 m). As you know, the nuclear submarine was destroyed by fire in April 1989, but the experience gained during its design, construction and operation is invaluable.

By the mid-70s, subclasses of nuclear submarines gradually emerged and stabilized for some time, differing in the purpose and composition of the main strike weapon:
- multipurpose submarines with torpedo weapons, anti-submarine missiles, and later cruise missiles fired from torpedo tubes and special launchers, designed for anti-submarine operations, destruction of surface targets, as well as for solving other tasks traditional for submarines (mine laying, reconnaissance, etc. );
- strategic missile submarines armed with ballistic missiles to destroy targets on enemy territory;
- submarines-carriers of cruise missiles, designed mainly for the destruction of surface ships and transports.

Abbreviated designation of submarines of these subclasses: nuclear submarine, SSBN, SSGN (respectively, English abbreviations: SSN, SSBN, SSGN).

The above classification, like any other, is conditional. For example, with the installation of silos for launching cruise missiles on multipurpose nuclear submarines, the differences between nuclear submarines and specialized SSGNs are largely erased, and the use of cruise missiles from nuclear submarines intended for firing at coastal targets and carrying nuclear charges makes such submarines strategic. In the Navy and the Navy different countries used, as a rule, its own classification of ships, including nuclear submarines.

The construction of combat submarines is carried out, as a rule, in series of several (sometimes several dozen) submarines in each on the basis of one basic design, into which relatively insignificant changes are made as experience in the construction and operation of submarines is accumulated. For example, in table. 4 shows data on the serial construction of nuclear submarines in the USA The series, as is usually accepted, are named accordingly

Table 4

* Built in three sub-series. A larger series of nuclear submarines of 77 units was implemented only during the construction of domestic missile carriers, which, although they differ in TTX, are based on one project 667A.
** Construction of the series has not been completed. Submarine, the time intervals are indicated by the time of laying the main submarine and commissioning the last submarine in the series.

The level of ALL development reached by the mid-90s is characterized by the ones given in Table. 5 data for three American nuclear submarines of the last years of construction.

Table 5

* Improved modification, head nuclear submarine of the third sub-series.
** According to other sources - 2x30000 hp

In relation to nuclear submarines (sometimes to submarines), a rather conventional, but widespread concept of "generation" is used. The signs by which nuclear submarines belong to one generation or another are: proximity in time of creation, commonality of technical solutions laid down in projects, the same type of power plants and other equipment for general ship use, the same hull material, etc. to be classified as nuclear submarines for various purposes and even several series following one after another. The transition from one series of submarines to another, and even more so - the transition from generation to generation, is preceded by comprehensive studies with the aim of making a reasonable choice of optimal combinations of the main tactical and technical characteristics of new nuclear submarines.

Rice. 11. The newest Russian multipurpose nuclear submarine of the Bars type (project 971)

The relevance of this kind of research has especially increased with the emergence of the possibility (thanks to the development of technology) of creating nuclear submarines that differ significantly in speed, depth of immersion, stealth indicators, displacement, weapons composition, etc. The implementation of these studies sometimes continues for several years and includes the development and a military-economic assessment for a wide range of alternative nuclear submarines - from an improved modification of a serially built nuclear submarine to an option that is a synthesis of fundamentally new technical solutions in the field of architecture, energy, weapons, hull materials, etc.

As a rule, these studies are not limited only to the design of nuclear submarines, but also include entire programs of research and development work in hydrodynamics, strength, hydroacoustics and other areas, and in some cases, discussed above, also the creation of special experimental nuclear submarines.

In the countries that are building nuclear submarines most intensively, three or four generations of these ships were created. For example, in the USA, among multipurpose nuclear submarines, nuclear submarines of the "Skate" and "Skipjack" types are usually referred to the 1st generation, the "Thresher" and "Sturgeon" to the II, and "LosAngeles" to the III. The Seawolf nuclear submarine is considered a representative of the new, IV generation of the US Navy nuclear submarine. Of the missile carriers, the boats George Washington and Ethan Allen belong to the 1st generation, the Lafayette and Benjamin Franklin to the II, and the Ohio to the III.

Rice. 12. Modern Russian nuclear submarine missile carrier of the "Akula" type (project 941)

In total, by the end of the 90s, about 500 nuclear submarines were built in the world (including those disabled due to obsolescence and deaths). The number of nuclear submarines by year in the Navy and Navy of different countries is given in table. 6.

Table 6

Note. Above the line - nuclear submarine, below the line - SSBN.

According to the forecast, the total number of nuclear submarines, which will be in service for 2000, will be (excluding nuclear submarines of the Russian Navy) about 130, of which about 30 SSBNs.

The secrecy of nuclear submarines and almost complete independence from weather conditions makes them an effective tool for carrying out various kinds of special reconnaissance and sabotage operations. Usually, submarines are used for these purposes after the end of their service for their intended purpose. So, for example, the previously mentioned US Navy nuclear submarine "Halibut", which was built as a carrier of cruise missiles "Regulus", in the mid-60s was converted to search (using special devices wearable) lying on the ground, including sunken submarines ... Later, the torpedo nuclear submarine of the US Navy "Parche" (of the "Sturgeon" type) was reequipped to replace it for similar operations, into the hull of which a section about 30 m long was cut and a special underwater vehicle was received on the deck. The nuclear submarine became notorious for the fact that in the 80s it participated in an espionage operation in the Sea of ​​Okhotsk. Having installed a special device on the submarine cable, she, according to data published in the United States, provided wiretapping of negotiations between the Soviet naval base in Kamchatka and the mainland.

Rice. 13. The newest American nuclear submarine "Seawolf"

Several Lafayete-class missile carriers of the US Navy, after being withdrawn from the strategic forces, were converted into amphibious assault submarines for the covert delivery of several dozen marines. For this, strong containers with the necessary equipment are installed on the deck. Thus, the extension of the life of nuclear submarines is ensured, which, for various reasons, are no longer used for their original purpose.

Over the forty-odd years of the existence of nuclear submarines, due to accidents (fires, explosions, depressurization of seawater lines, etc.), two nuclear submarines of the US Navy and four nuclear submarines of the USSR Navy sank, of which one sank twice in places with relatively shallow depths and was raised both times by means of the rescue service. The rest of the sunken nuclear submarines are seriously damaged or almost completely destroyed and lie at depths of one and a half kilometers or more.

There was one case combat use Submarine versus surface ship: The British Navy's Conqueror attacked and torpedoed the Argentine cruiser G.Belgrano during the conflict over the Falkland Islands in May 1982. Since 1991, American Los Angeles-class nuclear submarines have several times struck with Tomahawk cruise missiles at targets in Iraq. In 1999, these missiles attacked Yugoslavia from the British nuclear submarine Splendid.

(1) This shape, typical for diesel-electric submarines, provided satisfactory performance when flying on the surface.

(2) Previously, if there was a strong deckhouse protruding outside the hull on a submarine, it was called a deckhouse fence.

(3) It should be noted that at various times the US Navy intended to create a submarine with a CD, but each time preference was given to a multipurpose submarine.

(4) Earlier, a set of GAS for different purposes was used on the nuclear submarine.

(5) For the construction was used the project of serial nuclear submarines of the "Thresher" type and officially the nuclear submarine was considered the seventh ship in the series.

(6) Two electric motors were used, presumably with a capacity of 11,000 hp. with. each posted one after the other.

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Since its inception, nuclear energy in Russia has remained the prerogative of the state, especially in terms of the development of new technologies. Private investors in last years more than once made attempts to enter this market, and so far only En + Group, which manages the assets of Oleg Deripaska, has been successful. A parity joint venture between Rosatom and En + will adapt nuclear submarine reactors to civilian needs. Anna Kudryavtseva, CEO of the joint venture, told Interfax about the details of the future project and its prospects.

- You have been working on this project for a long time. When was the company incorporated? What will be the contributions of the parties: investments from Eurosibenergo and Rosatom's share?

The joint venture was registered on December 10, the parties' contributions are 50-50. We make not only investments, but also intellectual property.
We have basic technology reactor with a lead-bismuth coolant SVBR (lead-bismuth fast reactor - IF), which was tested by industry organizations - "Gidropress" and the Obninsk Institute of Physics and Power. SVBR installations, only of lower power, were operated on nuclear submarines. So SVBR is a proven technology, and Russia is the only country in the world that has this workable technology.

- And abroad, someone is engaged in similar projects of reactors with a lead-bismuth coolant?

- Some countries are at the R&D stage, some have only preliminary groundwork and concepts.

- What customers are NPPs with SVBR reactors targeted at?

Such stations are intended for the needs of regional energy, where there is a need for generation of medium and low power with an increased level of safety. I mean, first of all, hard-to-reach areas where metallurgical companies or oil and gas companies are mining.
In addition, the project has a large export potential, first of all in Africa and Asia, where, in terms of consumption volumes, 1000 MW reactors are not needed (with a capacity of 1000 MW - IF), or they are not suitable due to network restrictions. But at the same time, they need an increased level of security, such that if something happens, the installation will self-muffle. And in our country, the very principle of the reactor is aimed at ensuring maximum safety even in not very skillful hands.

- Previously, the total cost of the project was estimated - up to $ 1 billion. Do you confirm this amount?

- In the spring, we estimated the necessary investments at about 14-16 billion rubles (for the period until 2019), but this is at pre-crisis prices. Given the crisis, it is clear that this amount will be adjusted. On the one hand, we see a reduction in price work force, and for some items - equipment, preparatory work. On the other hand, we understand that there is inflation.
I would like to emphasize that within the framework of the joint venture we are laying down a clear principle: the use of all the classical canons of project management. That is, there will be strict cost control on both sides.

- Rosatom and a private investor have parity shares. How will the disputable issues be resolved?

International arbitration.

Have you already carried out an intellectual property assessment? When will Rosatom add it to the joint venture, and how will it be done?

Preliminary negotiations with a partner on this issue have passed. However, questions remain about the procedure for evaluating these assets at their real value. The fact is that now the developments under the SVBR project are the property of the industry's enterprises. And, as a rule, their score on the balance sheet is quite low. In order for us to bring this intellectual property into the joint venture at commercial value, a revaluation will be needed. But this raises questions of a legislative nature, because the revaluation will cause tax consequences for enterprises. Simply put, they have income tax. This is a problem point not only of our project, it is characteristic of the country as a whole.
In this regard, ROSATOM has created an intersectoral working group, which is still in its infancy. All the leading technology corporations are expected to be there. For example, Russian Technologies have already confirmed their participation. We also involve Rusnano, Russian Railways and Gazprom in this activity. Within the framework of the working group, proposals will be worked out on improving the legislation of the Russian Federation in terms of scientific, technical and innovation activities and, in particular, with regard to accounting in intellectual property assets. In 2010, we plan to prepare a package of relevant legislative initiatives.

- And when, in this case, do you expect the laws to be corrected?

Most likely, as we hope, these proposals can be approved in 2011. But we will not be in a hurry.

- Can you estimate what will be the share of intellectual property in the total cost of the project?

- We have a preliminary figure, but this is confidential information.

- What are the priority tasks of the joint venture for the coming years?

The first stage of our work is R&D and preparation of a civil project. We are laying on this for about 3.5-4 years. Managing R&D for performance is the number one challenge.
The second point of our efforts is to determine the location of the pilot plant. We are now choosing from three sites, all of which are industry enterprises, where human and technical resources are concentrated. I would not like to name them yet. In early 2010, I think a choice will be made in favor of one of the sites.
We will choose according to a set of criteria, including technical and geological characteristics, human resources, project economics, as well as the region's energy shortage. Despite the fact that the capacity of the pilot plant will be small, we consider it not only as a platform for developing technologies, but also as an economic facility.

Nuclear power plants are now based on nuclear power plants with VVER reactors, which carry the base load in the UES of Russia. That is, they cannot maneuver during the day following a change in consumption. Will the stations with SVBR reactors also operate in the base?

Maneuverability is one of the characteristics that we put into the project. Another advantage of SVBR is modularity. The 100 MW reactor will not be assembled on site, it will be assembled at the manufacturing plant and then delivered to the site. This makes the project cheaper.

- Is it already clear who will be the manufacturer?

There are a number of businesses, both industry and non-industry, that we are looking at. We are also ready to look at foreign equipment suppliers. In addition, the joint venture itself has the task of developing competencies not only in the field of nuclear power plant engineering, but also in reactor building.
I would like to note that now, due to the crisis, machine builders have fewer orders from traditional power engineering, and there is no active struggle for their capacities, so in this sense we are starting at a good time.

- Will the cost of 1 kW of power of the station with the SVBR reactor be comparable to the price of VVER?

On a pilot plant, the economy never works. Then the whole question is in the configuration of the serial unit. We are now working on this issue, assessing the market, including the foreign one. The larger the power of the NPP, the more economical the plant, and, ultimately, it would be optimal to build stations with SVBR reactors at once for 1000 MW. We can do that too. Another question is that the nuclear industry has both "fast" sodium reactors (project BN-800 - IF) and VVER in this power line. Therefore, we are unlikely to enter this niche, but rather focus on regional energy.
A preliminary estimate shows that the optimal capacity of a NPP with SVBR will be in the range of 200-400 MW. But as a result, everything will depend on the market, on how much the market can eat.
The economic parameters of the project will be more clearly visible when the pilot plant is operational. Although, of course, we are doing all the basic calculations and forecasts now.

- How will the issues of SVBR radioactive waste be resolved?

We have no special problems in terms of waste. Some technical risky points are understandable and obvious, but there is no insoluble criticism, only purely engineering questions.
In general, the industry is now creating one system handling radioactive waste and spent nuclear fuel, and we simply fit in there, we will be consumers of the services of national operators in this area. The same will happen with fuel.

- What fuel does SVBR use by the way?

For now, we will use the traditional fuel - enriched uranium. Next, most likely, there will be uranium-plutonium fuel (MOX), and in the next stage - dense fuel when it appears. The geometry of the SVBR core allows the use of any type of fuel.

- If I understand correctly, SVBR can also be a nuclear material developer, a so-called "breeder"?

Yes it is. Although we do not have an end in itself to be engaged in the production of plutonium. On the contrary, from the point of view of nonproliferation, it is better not to make these settings by “breeders”. In addition, there are "fast" sodium reactors that can produce everything that the industry needs for the production of MOX fuel, in particular. And then, there must be a certain proportion of reactors - consumers of MOX, and plutonium producers for these purposes. And this share is not one to one.

As far as we know, the possibility of using SVBR for placement on the sites of decommissioned nuclear power plants was discussed earlier. For example, at the Novovoronezh station, where the 1st and 2nd power units have already exhausted their resources. Is this idea still valid?

This option is being considered as an option, but we have not done a detailed study yet. However, we also understand that the market may be in demand Additional services SVBR, such as superheated steam, heat, water desalination plants.

- The project is designed for a fairly long period of implementation, and now, in a crisis, many private investors are facing financial difficulties. Do you admit the option that your partner, for some reason, may withdraw from the project or reduce his participation in it?

- Our partner, Eurosibenergo, confirmed its interest, including at the management level, and provided certain guarantees. We have been working for a year and a half, and financing during 2009, in particular, comes from Eurosibenergo.

- How much money has already been invested?

It is impossible to name the exact amount, because it is not clear how to correctly evaluate on a cost basis what was invested in the Soviet years, and in particular through the Ministry of Defense, because SVBR reactors were operated on nuclear submarines.
In general, it is impossible to make a cost estimate for projects of this kind. Therefore, if we evaluate it, then only on the basis of the income principle.

- You also count on the support of the state. How will it be expressed?

There are two aspects to this question, like two sides of the same coin. Firstly, there is a branch FTP on nuclear technologies of a new generation, where the development of "fast" power engineering, that is, reactors with sodium, lead and lead-bismuth coolants, is spelled out in a separate article. Financing in the direction of SVBR is provided there, and we consider this as a contribution of the state to the business of the state corporation. And the second side - within the framework of the presidential commission on modernization, our project was approved back in July, marked "without additional funding." There is such a format that confirms the priority status of the project.

For any country, it is a powerful geopolitical containment mechanism. And the submarine fleet, by its very presence, affects international relationships and escalation of conflicts. If in the 19th century the British border was determined by the sides of its military frigates, then in the 20th century the United States Navy became the leader of the World Ocean. And the Americans played an important role in this.

Paramount importance

The submarine gets everything for America greater importance... Historically, the territory of the country was limited by water borders, which made it difficult for a covert attack by the enemy. With the advent of modern submarines and submarine-to-air missiles in the world, these borders are becoming increasingly illusory for America.

The aggravated confrontation in international relations with Muslim countries makes the threat to the lives of American citizens real. Iranian Islamists are not abandoning their attempts to acquire submarine-to-air missiles, and this is a threat to all coastal centers of America. And in this case, the destruction will be colossal. Only a similar rival can resist an attack from under the water.

The current US President Donald Trump noted in his first interviews that he intends to further increase the US submarine fleet. But on one condition - a decrease in its cost. This is something that corporations that build American nuclear submarines should ponder. There is already a precedent. After Donald Trump said he would ask Boeing for cheaper fighters, Lockheed Martin cut the cost of the F-35 fighter.

Combat power

Today, US submarines are predominantly nuclear powered. This means that during operations, there will be limitations in combat effectiveness only in the amount of food and water on board. The most numerous class of submarines is Los Angeles. These are boats of the third generation with a displacement of about 7 tons, a submersion depth of up to 300 meters and a cost of about $ 1 million. However, America is currently replacing them with fourth-generation Virginia-class boats, more equipped and costing $ 2.7 million. And this price is justified by their combat characteristics.

Combat composition

Today it is the leader in both the quantity and equipment of naval weapons. The US Navy includes 14 strategic nuclear submarines and 58 multipurpose submarines.

The US military's submarine fleet is equipped with two types of submarines:

• Ocean ballistic boats. Deep-sea submarines, the purpose of which is the delivery of weapons to the point of destination and the release of ballistic missiles. In other words, they are called strategic. Defense weapons are not represented by strong firepower.
• “Boats are hunters”. High-speed boats, the goals and tasks of which are versatile: the delivery of cruise missiles and peacekeeping forces to the conflict zones, a lightning-fast attack and the destruction of enemy forces. Such submarines are called multifunctional. their specificity is speed, maneuverability and stealth.

The beginning of the development of underwater navigation in America begins in the middle of the nineteenth century. The volume of the article does not imply such an array of information. Let's focus on the nuclear arsenal that has developed since the end of World War II. We will conduct a brief overview of the submarine nuclear arsenal of the Armed Forces of America, adhering to the chronological principle.

The first experimental atomic

In January 1954, the first American submarine, USS Nautilus, with a displacement of about 4,000 tons and a length of 100 meters, was launched at the Groton shipyard in January 1954. She set out on her maiden voyage a year later. It was the "Nautilus" in 1958 that first passed the North Pole under water, which almost ended in tragedy - the breakdown of the periscope due to the failure of navigation systems. It was experimental and the only multipurpose torpedo boat with sonar installation in the bow, and torpedoes in the rear. The submarine "Barracuda" (1949-1950) showed this location the most successful.

American nuclear submarines owe their appearance to the naval engineer, Rear Admiral Hyman George Rickover (1900-1986).

The next experimental project was the USS Seawolf (SSN-575), also released in a single copy in 1957. It had a reactor with liquid metal as a coolant in the first loop of the reactor.

The first serial atomic

A series of four submarines built in 1956-1957 - "Skate" (USS Skate). They were part of the US armed forces and were decommissioned in the late 1980s.

A series of six boats - "Skipjack" (1959). Until 1964, this was the largest batch. The boats had an "albakor" hull shape and highest speed before the Los Angeles series.

At the same time (1959-1961) a specialized series of nuclear submarines in the amount of five - "George Washington" was launched. These are boats of the first ballistic project. Each boat had 16 rocket silos for Polaris A-1 missiles. Shooting accuracy was increased by a hygroscopic roll damper, which five times reduces the amplitude at a depth of 50 meters.

This was followed by projects of nuclear submarines for one experimental copy of the Triton, Halibut, Tullibe series. American designers experimented and improved navigation and power systems.

The large series of multipurpose boats that replaced the Skipjack consists of 14 Treaher nuclear submarines, the latter being decommissioned in 1996.

The Benjamin Franklin series are Lafayette-type submarines. At first they were armed with ballistic missiles. In the 70s they were rearmed with Poseidon missiles and then Trident-1 missiles. Twelve boats of the Benjamin Franklin series in 1960 became part of the fleet of strategic missile carriers, named "41 on the guard of Liberty." All ships of this fleet were named after the figures of American history.

The largest series - USS Sturgeon - of multifunctional nuclear submarines includes 37 submarines, created between 1871 and 1987. A distinctive feature is a reduced noise level and sensors for ice swimming.

Boats serving in the US Navy

From 1976 to 1996, the Navy was equipped with Los Angeles-class multipurpose boats. A total of 62 boats of this series were produced, this is the most numerous series of multi-purpose submarines. Torpedo armament and vertical launchers of Tomahawk-type missiles with homing systems. Nine Los Angeles class boats participated in the 26 MW GE PWR S6G reactors developed by General Electric. It is from this series that the tradition of naming boats by the names of American cities begins. Today in the US Navy 40 boats of this class are on combat service.

The series of strategic nuclear submarines, launched from 1881 to 1997, consists of 18 submarines with ballistic missiles on board - the Ohio series. The submarine of this series is armed with 24 ICBMs with individual guidance. They are armed with 4 torpedo tubes for protection. The Ohio is a submarine that forms the backbone of the US Navy's offensive forces and is at sea 60% of the time.

The last project of the third generation nuclear submarines of the third generation "Seawulf" (1998-1999). This is the most secret project of the US Navy. It was called "improved Los Angeles" for its special quietness. He appeared and disappeared unnoticed by radars. The reason is a special sound-insulating coating, the rejection of the propeller in favor of an engine such as a water cannon and the widespread introduction of noise sensors. A tactical speed of 20 knots makes it as noisy as a Los Angeles docked. There are three boats in this series: Seawulf, Connecticut and Jimmy Carter. The latter entered service in 2005, and it is this boat that is operated by the Terminator in the second season of the television series Terminator: The Sarah Connor Chronicles. This once again confirms the fantastic nature of these boats, both externally and in content. "Jimmy Carter" is also called the "white elephant" among submarines for its size (the boat is 30 meters longer than its counterparts). And according to its characteristics, this submarine can already be considered a submarine.

last generation

The future in submarine construction began in 2000 and is associated with a new class of boats of the USS Virginia class. The first boat of this class SSN-744 was launched and put into operation in 2003.

US Navy submarines of this type are called the weapons depot because of their powerful arsenal, and the "ideal observer" because of the most sophisticated and sensitive sensor systems ever installed on a submarine.

Movement even in relative shallow water is provided by an atomic engine with a nuclear reactor, the plan of which is classified. It is known that the reactor is designed for a service life of up to 30 years. The noise level is reduced due to a system of isolated chambers and a modern design of the power unit with a "jamming" coating.

General performance characteristics boats of the USS Virginia class, of which thirteen have already been put into operation:

• speed up to 34 knots (64 km / h);
• immersion depth is up to 448 meters;
• from 100 to 120 crew members;
• surface displacement - 7.8 tons;
• length up to 200 meters, and width about 10 meters;
• nuclear power plant type GE S9G.

In total, the series provides for the release of 28 Virginia nuclear submarines with the gradual replacement of the Navy's arsenal with fourth-generation submarines.

Michelle Obama's boat

In August last year, at a military shipyard in Groton, Connecticut, 13 USS Virginia class submarines with the tail number SSN -786 and the name Illinois were commissioned. It is named after the home state of the then First Lady Michelle Obama, who took part in its launch in October 2015. The initials of the first lady, according to tradition, are embossed on one of the details of the submarine.

The nuclear submarine Illinois, 115 meters long and with 130 crew members on board, is equipped with an unmanned underwater vehicle for detecting mines, a diving lock and other additional equipment. The purpose of this submarine is to conduct coastal and deep-sea operations.

Instead of the traditional periscope, the boat operates a telescopic system with a TV camera, a laser sensor for infrared observation is installed.

Firepower of the boat: 2 revolving installations of 6 missiles and 12 vertical cruise missiles of the "Tomahawk" class, as well as 4 torpedo tubes and 26 torpedoes.

The total cost of the submarine is $ 2.7 billion.

The prospect of military submarine capabilities

The highest ranks of the US Navy insist on the gradual replacement of diesel-fuel submarines with boats that have practically no restrictions in the conduct of combat operations - with nuclear propulsion systems. The fourth generation of the Virginia nuclear submarine provides for the production of 28 submarines of this class. The gradual replacement of the naval arsenal with fourth-generation boats will increase the rating and combat effectiveness of the American army.

But design bureaus continue to work and offer their designs to the army.

American landing submarines

Covert landing of troops on enemy territory is the goal of all amphibious operations. After World War II, America had such a technological opportunity. The Bureau of Ships has received an order for a landing submarine. Projects appeared, but the landing troops did not have financial support, and the fleet was not interested in the idea.

Of the seriously considered projects, we can mention the project of the Seaforth Group, which appeared in 1988. The landing submarine S-60 designed by them involves launching into the water at a distance of 50 kilometers from the coast, diving to a depth of 5 meters. At a speed of 5 knots, the submarine reaches the coastline and disembarks 60 paratroopers along retractable bridges at a distance of up to 100 meters from the coast. So far, no one has bought the project.

Time-tested reliability

The oldest submarine in the world, which is still in service today, is the Balao SS 791 Hai Shih (Sea Lion) submarine, which is part of the Taiwan Navy. A WWII American submarine built at the Portsmouth Naval Shipyard joined the US Navy in 1945. On account of her one military campaign in August 1945 in the Pacific Ocean. After several upgrades, in 1973 she was transferred to Taiwan and became the first operating boat in China.

In January 2017, the press reported that during 18 months of scheduled repairs, the shipyards of the Taiwan International Shipbuilding Corporation "Sea Lion" will carry out general repairs and replacement of navigation equipment. These works will extend the life of the submarine until 2026.

A one-of-a-kind American-made submarine veteran, plans to celebrate its 80th anniversary in combat.

Exceptionally tragic facts

There is no open and public statistics on losses and accidents in the US submarine fleet. However, the same can be said about Russia. Those facts that have become public knowledge will be presented in this chapter.

In 1963, a two-day test trip ended with the death of the American submarine Thresher. The official cause of the disaster is the ingress of water under the hull of the boat. The muffled reactor immobilized the submarine, and she went deep, taking the lives of 112 crew members and 17 civilian specialists. The wreckage of the submarine is at a depth of 2,560 meters. This is the first technological accident of a nuclear submarine.

In 1968, the multipurpose nuclear submarine "Scorpion" (USS Scorpion) disappeared without a trace in the Atlantic Ocean. The official version of the death is the detonation of ammunition. However, even today the mystery of the sinking of this vessel remains a mystery. In 2015, veterans of the US Navy once again asked the government to create a commission to investigate the incident, clarify the number of victims and determine their status.

In 1969, the submarine USS Guitarro with hull number 665 sank curiously. It happened at the quay wall and at a depth of 10 meters. Inconsistency and negligence of instrument calibration specialists led to flooding. Raising and restoring the boat cost the American taxpayer about $ 20 million.

The Los Angeles-class boat, which took part in the filming of the movie "The Hunt for Red October", on May 14, 1989, in the California coastal area, caught a cable connecting a tug and a barge. The boat made a dive, pulling the tug behind it. Relatives of one tug crew member who died that day received $ 1.4 million in compensation from the Navy.

In recent years, nuclear power plants (NPP) have been widely used in the naval forces of the capitalist countries. Advances in the field of nuclear energy have made it possible to create nuclear power plants in these countries that are suitable in terms of their weight and dimensions for submarines, which turned them from "diving" into truly submarines. According to foreign press reports, such boats pass huge distances under water at a speed of 30 knots or more, without surfacing for 60 - 70 days.

Equipping surface ships with nuclear power plants dramatically increased their combat effectiveness and radically changed the views on the use of the fleet. According to foreign experts, surface ships with such installations, in addition to practically unlimited cruising range on different speeds move, have the following advantages: it excludes the intake of conventional fuel (nuclear aircraft carriers can increase the reserves of aviation fuel or accept fuel for escort ships); the hull sealing is facilitated and the ship's protection against weapons of mass destruction is improved, since air is not required for the operation of the nuclear power plant; the layout of the premises is simplified and the thermal protection is improved, since there are no chimneys and chimneys; the corrosion of radio electronic equipment antennas and aircraft fuselages (on aircraft carriers) decreases due to the absence of flue gases.

Equipping surface ships with nuclear power plants increases the degree of their readiness and reduces the time of transition to the combat area. As a result, the combat effectiveness of ships increases by approximately 20 percent.

Rocket launchers and surface ships with nuclear power plants are designed to carry out the aggressive designs of the militarist circles of countries directed against the USSR and the countries of the socialist community.

According to the American press, the first nuclear power plant was installed on the nuclear submarine "Nautilus", entered into the fleet in 1954. By 1961, the US Navy had 13 nuclear-powered submarines, and currently the US, British and French navies have 119 nuclear-powered missile and torpedo submarines, and 13 nuclear-powered submarines are under construction.

According to the foreign press, the main type of submarine nuclear power plant is the S5W reactor, which is equipped mainly with both missile and torpedo submarines (Fig. 1). Its steam generating unit includes a pressurized water-moderated reactor with two autonomous primary loops, two steam generators, seven circulation pumps, three included for each steam generator (with one standby on both sides), a volume compensation system, and other auxiliary units and systems.

This Westinghouse Electric reactor belongs to the class of heterogeneous thermal reactors. In 1961, after some increase in power and increases in the core campaign, it was assigned the code S5W2. The thermal power of the modified reactor (diameter 2.45 m, height 5.5 m) is about 70 MW, the pressure in the primary circuit is 100 kg / cm2, and the temperature of the coolant at the outlet of the reactor is 280 ° C.

In the core of the S5W2 reactor, plate fuel elements with 40% enrichment are used. The core campaign is 5,000 hours, which provides nuclear submarines with a cruising range of 140,000 miles at full speed and 400,000 miles at an economic speed. The calendar life of the core is 5 - 5.5 years.
The main turbo-gear unit (shaft power 15,000 hp) consists of two turbines, which work through a two-stage gear reducer on one propeller shaft with a low-noise propeller. The steam pressure in front of the shunting device reaches 23 kg / cm2, and the temperature is 240 ° C.

Two autonomous synchronous turbine generators with a capacity of 1800 kW are the main sources of electricity. They generate alternating three-phase current (frequency 60 Hz, voltage 440 V). A rechargeable battery with a capacity of 7000 Ah (discharge mode 5 hours), consisting of 126 lead-acid cells, and a 500 kW DC diesel generator serve as backup power sources. The NPP electrical equipment also includes a low-speed DC electric motor connected to the shaft line. In the submarine movement mode with minimal noise emission, the propeller electric motor works through a reversible converter from a turbine generator, and in emergency cases - from a diesel generator or a storage battery. In addition, American nuclear submarines have two submersible asynchronous electric motors with three-blade propellers in the nozzle, which are extended from the light hull on stocks and are used mainly as thrusters.

The nuclear power plant is used to equip nuclear submarines with a submarine displacement of 3500 - 8230 tons (speed up to 30 knots).

According to foreign press reports, the US Navy has accumulated experience in operating nuclear power plants with a liquid metal coolant. The S2G reactor with liquid sodium in the first loop for the second nuclear submarine of the US Navy was developed almost simultaneously with the pressurized water reactor S2W. In the S2G reactor and its ground-based prototype SIG, the nuclear fuel was highly enriched uranium, and the moderator was graphite.

The trial operation of the S2G reactor, as reported in the foreign press, revealed the futility of a nuclear power plant with a liquid metal coolant. The command of the US Navy, considering that the possibility of leakage of a radioactive liquid metal alloy poses a great danger to the ship's personnel, made its choice in favor of a pressurized water reactor. The S2G reactor on the Submarine Seawulf (sailing 71,611 miles) was replaced during 1959 by the S2W reactor.

According to the foreign press, nuclear power plants currently used on submarines of the British and French navies are similar in type, main parameters and layout to the American S5W installation. The first British nuclear submarine, the Dreadnought, was equipped with a nuclear power plant designed and manufactured by Rolls-Royce with technical assistance from American specialists, and the S5W reactor was supplied by Westinghouse Electric. The installation of serial nuclear submarines of the type and was developed and manufactured entirely by the British industry without the involvement of US firms. It includes an S5W-type reactor and a main turbo-gear unit (shaft power 15,000 hp) operating in line with a six-blade propeller. For the new nuclear-powered torpedo submarine, a more powerful nuclear power plant was created, the reactor of which has an improved core with an increased service life.

The first nuclear-powered missile submarine of the French Navy was initially supposed to use a reactor with a heavy water moderator. However, during the design of the ship, this idea was abandoned, and a standard single-shaft nuclear power plant with a capacity of 15,000 liters is installed on all boats of the type. with. (fig. 2). French reactors, unlike American and British ones, run on uranium at 93.5% enrichment.

Currently, nuclear power plants for nuclear torpedo submarines are being created at the Kadarash nuclear center (), the construction of which will begin in the coming years.

American experts consider the creation of a nuclear power plant with low levels of noise emission as one of the main tasks in the field of nuclear submarine shipbuilding. Already in the process of developing the S5W reactor, measures were taken to de-noise the installation mechanisms (mainly by reducing the intensity of their work, increasing the accuracy of parts processing and installation). However, these measures have not yielded significant results. The search for a fundamentally new approach to solving this important problem led to the creation of a power plant with electric propulsion, which was tested on a nuclear submarine built in 1960. The nuclear power plant of this experimental ship has a small reactor of the S2C type, two turbine generators and a propulsion electric motor with a capacity of 2500 liters. with. The turboelectric power transmission to the propeller shaft made it possible to significantly reduce the noise level of the installation due to the elimination of the gear reducer and to simplify its control system, providing the ability to quickly change the direction and rotational speed of the propeller. But the use of electric motion leads to an increase in the weight and volume of the installation, as well as to a decrease in its efficiency.

As the American press reported, at the beginning of 1966, the United States began to build an experimental nuclear submarine with the S5G reactor, which has an increased level of natural circulation of the coolant in the primary circuit. The nuclear submarine Narwhal was commissioned into the US Navy in 1969. Its displacement is 5350 tons, the power of the nuclear power plant is 17000 liters. with., speed of 30 knots. According to American experts, the exclusion of large circulation pumps from the primary circuit equipment eliminates one of the main sources of noise from the nuclear power plant, and also increases the reliability of the installation and simplifies its maintenance.

At present, construction of the experimental nuclear submarine Glenard P. Lipscomb is nearing completion in the United States. It uses a natural circulation reactor S5WA (improved S5G) and a turboelectric power plant.

According to the foreign press, surface ships with nuclear power plants are being built only in the United States. They also use pressurized pressurized water reactors built by Westinghouse Electric and General Electric. However, unlike nuclear submarines, a unified power plant did not become widespread on these ships. For each type of ship, a new nuclear power plant is designed, while retaining, if possible, the main standard equipment.

The American press reported that the strike aircraft carrier (the flagship of the US nuclear surface fleet), which entered service at the end of 1961, is equipped with a four-shaft nuclear power plant (with a total capacity of 28,000 hp) with eight A2W reactors located in four echelons. The steam generated in each steam generating unit, arranged according to a two-loop scheme, is fed to one main turbine and two turbine generators with a capacity of 2500 kW each. The nuclear power plant of the nuclear cruiser includes two C1G reactors, four main turbines operating in pairs through reduction gear reducers on two shaft lines, and six turbine generators. The total capacity of the power plant is 160,000 liters. with., the full speed of the ship is 35 knots. The two-shaft nuclear power plant of the frigates URO "Trakstan" and "Bainbridge" includes two reactors of the D2G type, two main turbo-gear units with a total capacity of 60,000 liters. with. and five turbine generators with a capacity of 2500 kW each.

On all nuclear-powered surface ships of the US Navy, an auxiliary boiler plant and a supply of fuel for it are provided.

At present, two nuclear attack aircraft carriers of the type and five nuclear frigates are being built for the US Navy: two types and three types "Virginia". Their power plants will have new reactors, more powerful main turbine gear units and improved electrical equipment.

Foreign naval experts believe that the nuclear power plants of surface ships are too high specific gravity(45 - 55 kg / hp) in comparison with steam turbine plants of the same capacity (12 - 18 kg / hp without taking into account the fuel supply). This is one of the reasons that prevent the introduction of nuclear power plants on ships of the "destroyer" class.

Nuclear power plants are continuously developing and improving. Research and development work has become very widespread in the United States, where experimental and test ships are being built to test new technical solutions aimed at improving the characteristics of nuclear power plants.

The development of naval nuclear power plants, according to American naval experts, is in the following main directions: increasing the core campaign and the depth of fuel burnup, reducing noise levels, and increasing reliability.

US Navy Command since its inception nuclear fleet pays attention to the issues of increasing the service life of the core, as well as increasing the reliability of the entire installation, since these characteristics affect the operational use of nuclear ships. However, the first active zones with a significantly increased campaign were not created until 1961. Attack aircraft carrier Enterprise after the first loading with nuclear fuel covered 207,000 miles, after the second - more than 500,000 miles. During the overhaul, a new design core with a calendar service life of 10-13 years was installed in its reactors.

According to foreign press reports, in the USA and Japan there are, and in the UK, France, Italy and the Netherlands, nuclear power plants are also being developed for ships of the merchant fleet, which will make it possible to identify their advantages and disadvantages during operation, which can later be taken into account when designing nuclear reactors. for warships.

In recent years, there has been new way in the development of nuclear power plants. For the ships of the US nuclear fleet, nuclear reactors with a capacity of 100 thousand hp have been created and are being developed. and more. For example, the two reactors of the attack aircraft carrier Nimitz have the same power as the eight reactors of the attack aircraft carrier Enterprise. Reactors of high-speed boats of the type and boats of the sea-based missile system will have a large capacity.

When developing new nuclear power plants, specialists also strive to reduce the time spent on refueling reactor cores, improve the design of individual units of the power plant and reduce its dimensions.

According to foreign press reports, in Western countries, along with the development of nuclear power plants with pressurized water-cooled reactors, power plants with reactors of other types are being created, of which boiling-boiling reactors and gas-cooled reactors are considered the most promising.

Boiling water cooled reactors are mainly developed in the United States. Attempts to create nuclear power plants with high-temperature gas reactors have, where a project has been recently developed for a single-circuit nuclear gas turbine plant for a deep-sea missile submarine with a standard displacement of 3600 tons. to reduce the dimensions and weight of the installation by 80-85 percent. and improve the efficiency of power transmission. It is assumed that during the implementation of the project it will be possible to ensure efficiency. installations about 30 percent, and in the future to bring it up to 42 percent. (efficiency of NPP with pressurized water reactors is less than 28 percent).

According to foreign press reports, the technical implementation of all projects of ship nuclear gas turbine units with gas-cooled reactors meets great difficulties.

According to foreign naval experts, in the capitalist countries, whose navies operate in the waters of the World Ocean, only nuclear submarines are being built. Surface ships with nuclear power plants are being built so far only in the United States. The opinion is expressed that the only type of shipborne nuclear reactors in the coming years will remain a pressurized water reactor with forced and natural circulation of the coolant in the primary circuit.